Artificial Neural Networks based on a Low-Order Model of Biological Neural Networks

ABSTRACT

A low-order model (LOM) of biological neural networks and its mathematical equivalents including the clusterer interpreter probabilistic associative memory (CIPAM) are disclosed. They are artificial neural networks (ANNs) organized as networks of processing units (PUs), each PU comprising artificial neuronal encoders, synapses, spiking/nonspiking neurons, and a scheme for maximal generalization. If the weights in the artificial synapses in a PU have been learned (and then fixed) or can be adjusted by the unsupervised accumulation rule and the unsupervised covariance rule (or supervised covariance rule), the PU is called unsupervised (or supervised) PU. The disclosed ANNs, with these Hebbian-type learning rules, can learn large numbers of large input vectors with temporally/spatially hierarchical causes with ease and recognize such causes with maximal generalization despite corruption, distortion and occlusion. An ANN with a network of unsupervised PUs (called clusterer) and offshoot supervised PUs (called interpreter) is an architecture for many applications.

1 CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is related to the provisional patent application Ser. No. 61/475,819, filed 2010 Apr. 15 and the provisional patent application Ser. No. 61/434,109, filed 2010 Jan. 19 submitted by the present inventor.

2 BACKGROUND AND ADVANTAGES OF THE INVENTION

The invention herein disclosed comprises artificial neural networks (ANNs) and systems and methods based thereon for most of the applications of ANNs such as clustering, detecting or recognizing spatial, hierarchical and/or temporal patterns of objects or causes; understanding images or videos; recognizing speeches, handwriting and texts; and generating representations of probability distributions of labels of patterns of objects and causes, where data may contain erasure, smear, noise, occlusion, distortion, alteration, rotation, translation and/or scaling. The ANNs (artificial neural networks) are based on a low-order model of biological neural networks and have applications in a large number of fields such as computer vision, signal processing, financial engineering, telecommunication, data clustering, and data mining. Example applications are handwritten character/word classification, face recognition, fingerprint identification, DNA sequence identification, speech recognition, machine fault detection, baggage/container examination, video monitoring/understanding, image understanding, scene analysis, text/speech understanding, automatic target recognition, medical diagnosis, prosthesis control, robotic arm control, and vehicle navigation.

A good introduction to the prior art in ANNs (artificial neural networks) and their applications can be found in Simon Haykin, Neural Networks and Learning Machines, Third Edition, Pearson Education, New Jersey, 2009; Christopher M. Bishop, Pattern Recognition and Machine Learning, Springer Science, New York, 2006.

An ANN, which is a functional model of biological neural networks, was recently reported in James Ting-Ho Lo, Functional Model of Biological Neural Networks, Cognitive Neurodynamics, Vol. 4, Issue 4, pp. 295-313, November 2010, where the ANN is called the temporal hierarchical probabilistic associative memory (THPAM), and in James Ting-Ho Lo, A Cortex-Like Learning Machine for Temporal and Hierarchical Pattern Recognition, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/471,341, filed May 22, 2009; Publication No. US-2009-0290800-A1, Publication Date Nov. 26, 2009, where the ANN is called the probabilistic associative memory (PAM). The ANN is hereinafter referred to as the THPAM. The goal to achieve in the construction of the THPAM was to develop an ANN that performs Hebbian-type unsupervised and supervised learning without differentiation, optimization or iteration; retrieves easily; and recognizes corrupted, distorted and occluded temporal and spatial information. In the process to achieve the goal, mathematical necessity took precedence over biological plausibility. This mathematical approach focused first on minimum mathematical structures and operations that are required for an effective learning machine with the mentioned properties.

The THPAM turned out to be a functional model of biological neural networks with many unique features that well-known models such as the recurrent multilayer perceptron, associative memories, spiking neural networks, and cortical circuit models do not have. However, the THPAM has been found to have shortcomings. Among them the most serious one is the inability of its unsupervised correlation rule to prevent clusters from overgrowing under certain circumstances. These shortcomings motivated further research to improve the THPAM. At the same time, the unique features of the THPAM indicated that it might contain clues for understanding the structures and operations of biological neural networks. To achieve this understanding and eliminate the mentioned shortcomings, the components of the THPAM were examined from the biological point of view with the purpose of constructing a biologically plausible model of biological neural networks. More specifically, the components of the THPAM were identified with those of biological neural networks and reconstructed, if necessary, into biologically plausible models of the same.

This effort resulted in a low-order model (LOM) of biological neural networks and an improved functional model called the Clustering Interpreting Probabilistic Associative Memory (CIPAM). They were respectively reported in the articles, James Ting-Ho Lo, A Low-Order Model of Biological Neural Networks, Neural Computation, Vol. 23, No. 10, pp. 2626-2682, October 2011; and James Ting-Ho Lo, A Cortex-Like Learning Machine for Temporal Hierarchical Pattern Clustering, Detection, and Recognition, Neurocomputing, Vol. 78, pp. 89-103, 2012, which are both incorporated into the present invention disclosure by reference. Note that “dendritic and axonal encoders”, “dendritic and axonal trees” and “dendritic and axonal expansions” in them are collectively called “neuronal encoders”, “neuronal trees” and “neuronal codes” respectively in the present invention disclosure and that “C-neuron”, “D-neuron” and “expansion covariance matrix” are called “nonspiking neuron”, “spiking neuron” and “code covariance matrices” respectively in the present invention disclosure.

It was subsequently discovered that the LOM and the CIPAM are equivalent in the sense that their corresponding components can mathematically be transformed into each other. In fact, generalizing the mathematical transformation that transforms the LOM and the CIPAM into each other, we can transform the LOM and the CIPAM into infinitely many equivalent models.

The LOM, the CIPAM and their equivalent models are each a network of models of the biological neuronal node or encoder (which is a biological dendritic or axonal node or encoder), synapse, spiking/nonspiking neuron, means for learning, feedback connection, maximal generalization scheme, feedback connection, etc. For simplicity, these component models are sometimes referred to without the word “model”. For example, the model neuronal node, model neuronal encoder, model neuronal tree, model synapse, model spiking/nonspiking neuron, etc. will be referred to as the neuronal node/encoder/tree, synapse, spiking/nonspiking neuron, etc. respectively. The LOM, the CIPAM and all their equivalent models can be used as artificial neural networks (ANNs). To emphasize that their components are artificial components in these artificial neural networks, they are referred to as the artificial neuronal node/encoder/tree, artificial synapse, artificial spiking/nonspiking neuron, etc. respectively.

If there is possibility of confusion, the real components in the brain are referred to with the adjective “biological”, for example, the biological neuronal node, biological neuronal encoder, biological neuronal tree, biological spiking/nonspiking neuron, and biological synapse, etc. The components of equivalent models (or equivalent ANNs) that can be obtained from transforming a component model of the LOM are given the same name of the said component of the LOM. In other words, all the model components (of the equivalent ANNs) that are equivalent to one another are given the same component name.

All models that are equivalent to the LOM including the LOM and the CIPAM use the “unsupervised covariance rule” instead of the “unsupervised correlation rule” used in the THPAM and can prevent the clusters of patterns or causes formed in synapses from overgrowing. Moreover, all models that are equivalent to the LOM including the LOM and the CIPAM use the “supervised covariance rule” instead of the “supervised correlation rule” used in the THPAM. These are two of the main improvements in the LOM, the CIPAM and other equivalent models over the THAPM.

From the application viewpoint, as an ANN, the LOM (or a mathematical equivalent thereof) has the following advantages:

-   -   1. No label of the learning data from outside the ANN is needed         for the UPUs (unsupervised processing units) in the LOM to         learn.     -   2. The unsupervised learning by a processing unit clusters data         without involving selecting a fixed number of prototypes,         cycling through the data, using prototypes as cluster labels, or         minimizing a non-convex criterion.     -   3. Both the unsupervised and supervised covariance rules are of         the Hebbian type, involving no differentiation, backpropagation,         optimization, iteration, or cycling through the data. They learn         virtually with “photographic memories”, and are suited for         online adaptive learning. Large numbers of large temporal and         spatial data such as photographs, radiographs, videos,         speech/language, text/knowledge, etc. are learned easily. The         “decision boundaries” are not determined by exemplary patterns         from each and every pattern and “confuser” class, but by those         from pattern classes. In many applications such as target and         face recognition, there are a great many pattern and “confuser”         classes and usually no or not enough exemplary patterns for some         “confuser classes”.     -   4. Only a small number of algorithmic steps are needed for         retrieving or estimating labels. Detection and recognition of         multiple/hierarchical temporal/spatial causes are easily         performed. Massive parallelization at the bit level by VLSI         implementation is suitable.     -   5. Subjective probability distributions and membership functions         of labels are easily obtained by supervised processing units         (SPUs) and unsupervised processing units (UPUs).     -   6. The ANN generalizes not by only a single holistic similarity         criterion for the entire input exogenous feature vector, which         noise; erasure; distortion and occlusion can easily defeat, but         by a large number of similarity criteria for feature subvectors         input to a large number of UPUs (processing units) in different         layers. These criteria contribute individually and collectively         to generalization for single and multiple causes. Example 1:         smiling; putting on a hat; growing or shaving beard; or wearing         a wig can upset a single similarity criterion used for         recognizing a face in a mug-shot photograph. However, a face can         be recognized by each of a large number of feature subvectors of         the face. If one of them is recognized to belong to a certain         face, the face is recognized. Example 2: a typical kitchen         contains a refrigerator, a counter top, sinks, faucets, stoves,         fruit and vegetable on a table, etc. The kitchen is still a         kitchen if a couple of items, say the stoves and the table with         fruit and vegetable, are removed.     -   7. Masking matrices in a PU (processing unit) eliminate effects         of corrupted, distorted and occluded components of the feature         subvector input to the PU, and thereby enable maximal         generalization capability of the PU, and in turn that of the         ANN.     -   8. The ANN is no more a blackbox with “fully connected” layers         much criticized by opponents of such neural networks as         multilayer perceptrons (MLPs) or recurrent MLPs. In a PU of the         ANN, synaptic weights are covariances between neuronal codes and         labels of the vector input to the PU. Each PU has a receptive         field in the exogenous feature vector input to the ANN and         recognizes the pattern(s) or cause(s) appearing within the         receptive field. Such properties can be used to help select the         architecture (i.e., layers, PUs, connections, feedback         structures, etc.) of the ANN for the application.     -   9. The ANN (or a mathematical equivalent thereof) may have some         capability of recognizing rotated, translated and scaled         patterns. Moreover, easy learning and retrieving by an ANN allow         it to learn translated, rotated and scaled versions of an input         image with ease.     -   10. The hierarchical architecture of the clusterer stores models         of the hierarchical temporal and spatial worlds (e.g., letters,         words and sentences).     -   11. Ambiguity and uncertainty are represented and resolved with         subjective probabilities and membership degrees in the sense of         fuzzy logic.     -   12. Noises and interferences in inputs self-destruct like random         walks with residues eliminated gradually by forgetting factors         in the synapses, leaving essential informations that have been         learned by repetitions and emphases.     -   13. The architecture of the ANN can be adjusted without         discarding learned knowledge in the ANN. This allows enlargement         of the feature subvectors, increase of the number of layers, and         even increase of feedback connections.

For simplicity and clarity of the present invention disclosure, we will mainly describe the LOM in the present invention disclosure and will also show how the LOM is transformed into the CIPAM and other ANNs that are mathematically equivalent to it by the use of affine functions and their inverses.

3 SUMMARY

In this Section, we first describe briefly the LOM (Low-Order Model of biological neural networks) and its equivalents including the CIPAM (Clustering Interpreting Probabilistic Associative Memory). All these equivalents and the LOM can be transformed into one another by affine functions and their inverses. The components of the LOM and their corresponding components of those equivalents are models of the corresponding components of biological neural networks. Each model component of the LOM and its corresponding model components of those equivalents can be transformed into one another by affine functions and their inverses and are therefore given the same name. Such components include the model neuronal node, model neuronal encoder, model neuronal tree, model synapse, model spiking neuron, model nonspiking neuron, etc.

The LOM and its equivalents form a new paradigm of artificial neural networks and can be used for the wide range of applications that artificial neural networks are intended for. Said applications include clustering data, detecting objects or patterns, recognizing or classifying patterns or objects. In applications, the LOM and its equivalents are artificial neural networks, and their model components, which are mentioned above, are the artificial neuronal (axonal or dendritic) node, artificial neuronal (axonal or dendritic) encoder, artificial neuronal (axonal or dendritic) tree, artificial synapse, artificial spiking neuron, artificial nonspiking neuron, etc. In the present invention disclosure, the words, “model” and “artificial” in front of a component are used interchangeably, depending on whether the emphasis is placed on modeling of a biological component or on application of the model.

For simplicity, the LOM is described in the present invention disclosure with the understanding that the description is valid for the equivalents of the LOM after transformation by proper affine functions and their inverses. Notice also that in this invention disclosure, although a dendrite or axon is a part of a neuron, and a dendro-dendritic synapse is a part of a dendrite (thus a part of a neuron), they are treated, for simplicity, as if they were separate entities, and the word “neuron” refers essentially to the soma of a neuron in this specification. Similarly, artificial dendrites, artificial axons, and artificial synapses are treated, for simplicity, as if they were separate from artificial nonspiking/spiking neurons, and the term “artificial nonspiking/spiking neuron” refers essentially to the model of a soma of a neuron in the present invention disclosure.

In this Summary, references to subsection and subsubsection numbers in the Section entitled “DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS” are made.

As an artificial neural network (ANN), the LOM (or any of its equivalents), is a discrete-time multilayer network of processing units (PUs) with or without feedback connections. A PU includes some or all of the following components:

-   -   1. artificial neuronal encoders for encoding a vector that is         input to said encoder into a neuronal code that is output from         the encoder and has an orthogonality property;     -   2. means for evaluating a code deviation vector that is the         deviation of a neuronal code from an average neuronal code;     -   3. artificial synapses each for storing an entry of a code         deviation accumulation vector and for evaluating a first product         of said entry and a component of a code deviation vector that is         the deviation of a neuronal code from an average neuronal code;     -   4. artificial synapses each for storing an entry of a code         covariance matrix and for evaluating a second product of said         entry and a component of a code deviation vector that is the         deviation of a neuronal code from an average neuronal code;     -   5. memory means for storing masking factors, which are the         diagonal entries of masking matrices;     -   6. an artificial nonspiking neuron for evaluating a first sum of         products each of a first product and a masking factor; and     -   7. R artificial spiking neurons each for evaluating a second sum         of products each of a second product and a masking factor and         for using said first sum and said second sum to evaluate a         representation of a subjective probability distribution of a         component of a label of a vector that is input to said         processing unit and for generating a pseudorandom number in         accordance with said subjective probability distribution,         wherein R is the number of binary digits in the label of the         vector input to the PU, the R pseudorandom numbers generated by         said artificial spiking neurons are binary digits (i.e., 0         and 1) and form a point estimate of the label of the vector         input to said PU; such labels and their point estimates being         R-dimensional binary vectors. Over time, the point estimates         generated by a PU form R spike trains output from the PU. The         effect of the masking factors, which are nonnegative integers,         can also be achieved either by having numerous artificial         neuronal encoders with input vectors of different         dimensionalities (i.e., input vectors with different numbers of         components) or by including duplicates of first products and         duplicates of second products in the first and second sum         respectively.

A vector input to a PU first goes through artificial neuronal encoders (Subsection 5.1), which are networks of artificial neuronal nodes and form the upper part of the artificial neuronal trees. Artificial neuronal nodes in the LOM are each a hyperbolic polynomial with two variables, which acts approximately like an XOR (exclusive-OR) logic gate with an accuracy depending on how close the two inputs to the node are to binary digits (Subsubsection 5.1.1). By combining such hyperbolic polynomials, which are commutative and associative binary operations, an artificial neuronal node may have more than two input variables.

An artificial neuronal encoder, which is a network of neuronal nodes or a mathematical composition of many hyperbolic polynomials, can be looked upon as a function that encodes its input vector into a neuronal code with an orthogonal property (Subsubsection 5.1.3). Code deviation vectors that are each a deviation of a neuronal code from an average neuronal code over a time window are computed.

The strength (or weight) of an artificial synapse is either an entry of a code covariance matrix or an entry (or component) of a code deviation accumulation vector. An artificial synapse storing an entry of a code deviation accumulation vector evaluates the product of said entry and a component of a code deviation vector to yield a first product. This product is then multiplied to a masking factor, that is the diagonal entry of a masking matrix corresponding to the artificial synapse. An artificial synapse storing an entry of a code covariance matrix evaluates the product of said entry and a component of a code deviation vector to yield a second product. This product is then multiplied to a masking factor, that is the diagonal entry of a masking matrix corresponding to the artificial synapse.

In the PU, there are an artificial nonspiking neuron, also called a model nonspiking neuron, and R artificial spiking neurons, also called model spiking neurons. An artificial nonspiking neuron evaluates a first sum of products each of a first product and a masking factor (Subsubsection 5.5.4). An artificial spiking neuron evaluates a second sum of products each of a second product and a masking factor, uses said first sum and said second sum to evaluate a representation of a subjective probability distribution of a component of a label of a vector that is input to said processing unit, and generates a pseudorandom number in accordance with said subjective probability distribution (Subsubsection 5.5.5). The R pseudorandom numbers generated by the R artificial spiking neurons are binary digits (i.e., 0 and 1) and form a point estimate of the label of the vector input to said PU, such labels and their point estimates being R-dimensional binary vectors. Over time, the point estimates generated by a PU form R spike trains output from the PU. The effect of the masking factors, which are nonnegative integers, can also be achieved either by having numerous artificial neuronal encoders with input vectors of different dimensionalities (i.e., input vectors with different numbers of components) or by including duplicates of first products and duplicates of second products in the first and second sum respectively.

There are three learning rules: the unsupervised covariance rule, supervised covariance rule and unsupervised accumulation rule. The unsupervised covariance rule is used for synapses with post-synaptic model spiking neurons whose outputs are teaching signals (or desired outputs from the post-synaptic model spiking neurons) (Subsubsection 5.2.1). The supervised covariance rule is used for synapses receiving teaching signals (or desired outputs from the post-synaptic model spiking neurons) or a given label from outside the LOM (Subsubsection 5.2.2). The unsupervised accumulation rule is used for accumulating deviations of the neuronal codes from their averages over time for synapses with a post-synaptic model nonspiking neuron (Subsubsection 5.2.3). A forgetting factor and a normalizing constant are used to keep the entries in expansion covariance matrices and expansion accumulation matrices bounded. A PU usually learns by the unsupervised accumulation rule and one of the other two learning rules. In some applications, a processing unit can perform both supervised and unsupervised covariance learning, depending on whether a teaching signal from outside the LOM is available or not.

By the unsupervised covariance rule, the output vector from the R artificial spiking neurons (i.e., model spiking neurons) in the PU is assigned as the label (or teaching signals) to be learned jointly with the vector input to the PU. If the input vector or a variation thereof has not been learned before, the output vector from the R artificial spiking neurons is a purely random label. If the input vector or a variation of it has been learned before, the output vector, which is a point estimate of the label or labels of the input vector based on the subjective probability distribution, is learned jointly with the input vector. Supervised covariance learning is performed when teaching signals (i.e., labels of input vector to the PU) from outside the LOM are provided (Subsection 5.2.2). In the third type of learning, namely unsupervised accumulation learning, no label is needed.

Maximal generalization capability of the PU is achieved mainly with masking matrices, each automatically finding the largest subvector of the output vector of a neuronal encoder that matches a subvector of an output vector of the same neuronal encoder that has been stored in the code covariance matrix (or the code deviation accumulation vector) and setting the rest of the components of the former output vector equal to zero. A masking matrix can be viewed as idealization and organization of neuronal encoders with overlapped and nested input vectors (Section 5.4).

If a PU is required to be able to distinguish learned input vectors with small differences with learned input vectors and to recognize unlearned input vectors with larger differences with learned input vectors, masking matrices for retrieving and masking matrices for unsupervised learning should be different. To distinguish these two types of masking matrix, the former and the latter are respectively called the masking matrices and the learning masking matrices, and similarly, their diagonal entries are respectively called masking factors and learning masking factors.

The biological explanation of learning masking matrices (or learning masking factors) is unclear. However, to use them for unsupervised learning, a processing unit should further include:

-   -   1. memory means for storing a plurality of learning masking         factors,     -   2. means for evaluating a third sum of products each of a first         product and a learning masking factor;     -   3. means for evaluating R fourth sums, each of which is a sum of         products each of a second product and a learning masking factor,         and using said third sum and said fourth sum to evaluate a         representation of a second subjective probability distribution;         and     -   4. unsupervised learning means for using R pseudorandom numbers         generated in accordance with said second subjective probability         distribution and at least one code deviation vector to adjust at         least one code covariance matrix in response to a vector that is         input to said processing unit by the unsupervised covariance         rule,         wherein said learning masking factors are diagonal entries of a         learning masking matrix; said products each of a first product         and a learning masking factor are entries of the product of a         code deviation accumulation vector, a learning masking matrix         and a code deviation vector; and said products each of a second         product and a learning masking factor are entries of the product         of a code covariance matrix, a learning masking matrix and a         code deviation vector.

A PU that has completed learning or continues to learn by the unsupervised covariance learning rule is called an unsupervised processing unit (UPU). A PU that has completed learning or continues to learn by the supervised covariance learning rule is called a supervised processing unit (SPU). The LOM may have UPU in the lower layers and have SPUs in the higher layers. Alternatively, the LOM may have a network of UPUs only and have SPUs that branch out from the UPUs in said network. As unsupervised learning requires no label from outside the LOM, it can be performed anytime on data without a given or handcrafted label. What the network of UPUs actually does is clustering of spatial and temporal patterns in the data. When supervised learning occurs, a cluster is assigned with the same label given or handcrafted. Therefore, the network of UPUs is called a clusterer, and the set of SPUs branching out from the clusterer is called an interpreter.

It is stressed that the LOM is described in the present invention disclosure with the understanding that the description is valid for the equivalents of the LOM.

Object 1 of the present invention is to provide an artificial neural network and a method for identifying or approximating a known or unknown function or dynamical system.

Object 2 of the present invention is to provide an artificial neural network and a method for nonparametric nonlinear classification or regression for spatial or temporal data.

Object 3 of the present invention is to provide an artificial neural network and a method for nonparametric nonlinear classification or regression for spatially or temporally hierarchical data.

Object 4 of the present invention is to provide an artificial neural network and a method for recognizing spatial or temporal patterns.

Object 5 of the present invention is to provide an artificial neural network and a method for recognizing spatially or temporally hierarchical patterns.

Object 6 of the present invention is to provide an artificial neural network and a method for understanding images or videos.

Object 7 of the present invention is to provide an artificial neural network and a method for Objects 1-6 where said artificial neural network and said method are trained on data with erasure, smear, noise, occlusion, distortion, and/or alteration.

Object 8 of the present invention is to provide an artificial neural network and a method for generating representations of probability distributions of labels of the vector or its subvectors input to the artificial neural network or the method.

Object 9 of the present invention is to provide an artificial neural network and a method for data fusion, data mining, decision making, predicting a financial time series, or searching the internet.

Object 10 of the present invention is to provide an artificial neural network and a method for unsupervised learning of data or clustering of data.

Object 11 of the present invention is to provide an artificial neural network and a method for supervised learning of data.

Object 12 of the present invention is to provide an artificial neural network and a method to perform both supervised and unsupervised learning of data.

Object 13a of the present invention is to provide an artificial neural network whose architecture can be adjusted without discarding learned knowledge.

Object 13b of the present invention is to provide a method wherein the dimensionalities of unsupervised or supervised covariance matrices can be adjusted without discarding learned knowledge.

Object 14a of the present invention is to provide an artificial neural network with a hierarchical architecture for recognizing hierarchical patterns at different levels.

Object 14b of the present invention is to provide a method that employs a hierarchical structure for recognizing hierarchical patterns at different levels.

Object 15a of the present invention is to provide an artificial neural network with feedback connections for processing sequences of vectors such as those obtained from examining single images at consecutive time points, multiple images of an object taken from different angles, consecutive frames in a video or movie, and handwritten or printed letters in a word, words in a sentence, and sentences in a paragraph.

Object 15b of the present invention is to provide a method that employs feedback structures for processing sequences of vectors such as those obtained from examining single images at consecutive time points, multiple images of an object taken from different angles, consecutive frames in a video or movie, and handwritten or printed letters in a word, words in a sentence, and sentences in a paragraph.

Object 16 of the present invention is to provide an artificial neural network and a method for recognizing rotated, translated and/or scaled patterns.

The foregoing objects, as well as other objects of the present invention that will become apparent from the discussion below, are achieved by the present invention with the following preferred embodiments.

The first embodiment of the present invention disclosed herein is an artificial neural network that includes at least one processing unit, said processing unit comprising at least one artificial neuronal encoder for encoding a vector v_(t) (ψ) that is input to said encoder into a neuronal code v_(t) (ψ) that is output from the encoder and has an orthogonality property; a plurality of artificial synapses each for storing an entry C_(j) (ψ) of a code deviation accumulation vector

${C(\psi)} = {\frac{\Lambda}{2}{\sum\limits_{s = 1}^{t}{\lambda^{t - s}\left( {{{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{s}(\psi)} - {\langle{{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{s}(\psi)}\rangle}} \right)}^{\prime}}}$

and for evaluating a first product C_(j) (ψ) ({hacek over (v)}_(τj) (ψ)−

{hacek over (v)}_(τj) (ψ)

) of said entry C_(j) (ψ) and a component {hacek over (v)}_(τj)(ψ)−

{hacek over (v)}_(τj) (ψ)

of a code deviation vector {hacek over (v)}_(τ) (ψ)−

{hacek over (v)}_(τ) (ψ)

that is the deviation of a neuronal code {hacek over (v)}_(τ) (ψ) from an average neuronal code

{hacek over (v)}_(τ) (ψ)

; a plurality of artificial synapses each for storing an entry D_(kj) (ψ) of a code covariance matrix D (ψ)=ΛΣ_(s=1) ^(t)λ^(t-s) (r_(s)−½) ({hacek over (v)}_(s) (ψ)−

{hacek over (v)}_(s) (ψ)

)′ and for evaluating a second product D_(kj) (ψ) ({hacek over (v)}_(τj) (ψ)−

{hacek over (v)}_(τj) (ψ)

) of said entry D_(kj) (ψ) and a component {hacek over (v)}_(τj) (ψ)−

{hacek over (v)}_(τj) (ψ)

of a code deviation vector that is the deviation of a neuronal code {hacek over (v)}_(τ) (ψ) from an average neuronal code

{hacek over (v)}_(τj) (ψ)

; and evaluation means for using a plurality of first products and a plurality of second products to evaluate a representation (e.g., y_(τ)) of a subjective probability distribution p_(τ) of a label r_(τ) of a vector v_(τ) that is input to said processing unit.

The second embodiment of the present invention disclosed herein is the first embodiment, wherein said processing unit further comprises memory means for storing a plurality of masking factors, M_(jj) (ψ), j=1, . . . , 2^(dim v) ^(τ) ^((ψ)), ψ=1, . . . , Ψ, and said evaluation means comprises an artificial nonspiking neuron for evaluating a first sum Σ_(ψ=1) ^(Ψ) Σ_(j=1) ^(dim v) ^(τ(ψ)) c_(τj) (ψ) of products c_(τj) (ψ)=C_(j) (ψ) M_(jj) (ψ) ({hacek over (v)}_(τj) (ψ)−

{hacek over (v)}_(τj) (ψ)

) each of a first product and a masking factor M_(jj) (ψ); and at least one artificial spiking neuron for evaluating at least one second sum, d_(τk)=Σ_(ψ=1) ^(Ψ) Σ_(j=1) ^(dim v) ^(τ) ^((ψ)) d_(τkj) (ψ), k=1, . . . , R, of products d_(τkj) (ψ)=D_(kj) (ψ) M_(jj) (ψ)·({hacek over (v)}_(τj) (ψ)−

{hacek over (v)}_(τj) (ψ)

) each of a second product and a masking factor M_(jj) (ψ) and for using said first sum and said at least one second sum to evaluate a representation of a subjective probability distribution p_(τ) of a label r_(τ) of a vector that is input to said processing unit. Here the masking factors are diagonal entries of a masking matrix; said products each of a first product and a masking factor are entries of the product of a code deviation accumulation vector, a masking matrix and a code deviation vector; and said products each of a second product and a masking factor are entries of the product of a code covariance matrix, a masking matrix and a code deviation vector.

Masking factors, M_(jj) (ψ), j=1, . . . , 2^(dim v) ^(τ) ^((ψ)), ψ=1, . . . , Ψ, are nonnegative integers. The first sum Σ_(ψ=1) ^(Ψ) Σ_(j=1) ^(dim v) ^(τ) ^((ψ)) c_(τj) (ψ) of products c_(τj) (ψ) is equal to Σ_(ψ=1) ^(Ψ) Σ_(j=1) ^(dim v) ^(τ) ^((ψ)) Σ_(i=1) ^(M) ^(jj) ^((ψ)) C_(j) (ψ)·({hacek over (v)}_(τj) (ψ)−

{hacek over (v)}_(τj) (ψ)

), which is a sum of products C_(j) (ψ) ({hacek over (v)}_(τj) (ψ)−

{hacek over (v)}_(τj) (ψ)

). The second sum Σ_(ψ−1) ^(Ψ) Σ_(j=1) ^(dim v) ^(τ) ^((ψ)) d_(τkj) (ψ) of products d_(τkj) (ψ) is equal to Σ_(ψ=1) ^(Ψ) Σ_(j=1) ^(dim v) ^(τ) ^((ψ)) Σ_(i=1) ^(M) ^(jj) ^((ψ)) D_(kj) (ψ)·({hacek over (v)}_(τj) (ψ)−

{hacek over (v)}_(τj) (ψ)

), which is a sum of products C_(j) (ψ) ({hacek over (v)}_(τj) (ψ)−

{hacek over (v)}_(τj) (ψ)

). In short, multiplying a first product by a masking factor can be achieved with addition of duplicates of the first product, and multiplying a second product by a masking factor can be achieved with addition of duplicates of the second product. Therefore the second embodiment is a special case of the first embodiment.

Note that the product of a masking matrix M (ψ) and the code deviation vector {hacek over (v)}_(τj) (ψ)−

{hacek over (v)}_(τj) (ψ)

,

${{M(\psi)}\left( {{{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau \; j}(\psi)} - {\langle{{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau \; j}(\psi)}\rangle}} \right)} = {{\left( {I + {\sum\limits_{j = 1}^{J}{\sum\limits_{i_{j} = j}^{m}\mspace{14mu} {\ldots \mspace{14mu} {\sum\limits_{i_{2} = 2}^{i_{3} - 1}{\sum\limits_{i_{1} = 1}^{i_{2} - 1}{2^{- {nj}}2^{j}{diag}\; {\hat{I}\left( {i_{\overset{\_}{1}},i_{\overset{\_}{2}},\ldots \mspace{14mu},i_{\overset{\_}{j}}} \right)}}}}}}}} \right)\left( {{{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau \; j}(\psi)} - {\langle{{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau \; j}(\psi)}\rangle}} \right)} = {I + {\sum\limits_{j = 1}^{J}{\sum\limits_{i_{j} = j}^{m}\mspace{14mu} {\ldots \mspace{14mu} {\sum\limits_{i_{2} = 2}^{i_{3} - 1}{\sum\limits_{i_{1} = 1}^{i_{2} - 1}{2^{- {nj}}{2^{j}\left\lbrack {{diag}\; {\hat{I}\left( {i_{\overset{\_}{1}},i_{\overset{\_}{2}},\ldots \mspace{14mu},i_{\overset{\_}{j}}} \right)}\left( {{{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau \; j}(\psi)} - {\langle{{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau \; j}(\psi)}\rangle}} \right)} \right\rbrack}}}}}}}}}$

where diagÎ (i₁ ⁻, i₂ ⁻, . . . , i_(j) ⁻) ({hacek over (v)}_(τj) (ψ)−

{hacek over (v)}_(τj) (ψ)

) can be looked upon as the code deviation vector of the neuronal code diagÎ(i₁ ⁻, i₂ ⁻, . . . , i_(j) ⁻) {hacek over (v)}_(τj) (ψ), which can in turn be looked upon as what a neuronal encoder encodes the vector diagI (i₁ ⁻, i₂ ⁻, . . . , i_(j) ⁻) v_(τj) (ψ) into, and 2^(−ηj) denotes a weight that is preselected to differentiate between different levels j of maskings. Therefore, the first embodiment with artificial neuronal encoders that produce such neuronal codes diagÎ(i₁ ⁻, i₂ ⁻, . . . , i_(j) ⁻) {hacek over (v)}_(τj) (ψ) is mathematically the same as the second embodiment and has the same generalization capability as the second embodiment.

The third embodiment of the present invention disclosed herein is the second embodiment, wherein said at least one artificial spiking neuron is further for generating a pseudorandom vector v {p_(τ)} (or v {y_(τ)}) in accordance with said subjective probability distribution p_(τ).

The fourth embodiment of the present invention disclosed herein is the second embodiment, wherein the artificial neural network further comprises at least one feedback connection with time delay means. The artificial neural network in this embodiment is a recurrent network.

The fifth embodiment of the present invention disclosed herein is the second embodiment, wherein each processing unit further comprises unsupervised accumulation learning means for adjusting the code deviation accumulation vectors, C (ψ), ψ=1, . . . , Ψ, in response to a vector v_(t) that is input to said processing unit by the unsupervised accumulation rule,

$\left. {C(\psi)}\leftarrow{{C(\psi)} + {\frac{\Lambda}{2}\left( {{{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{t}(\psi)} - {\langle{{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{t}(\psi)}\rangle}} \right)^{\prime}}} \right.;$

and unsupervised learning means for using a pseudorandom vector v {p_(τ)} in accordance with said subjective probability distribution p_(τ) and code deviation vectors {hacek over (v)}_(t) (ψ)−

{hacek over (v)}_(t) (ψ)

to adjust the code covariance matrices, D (ψ), ψ=1, . . . , Ψ, in response to a vector that is input to said processing unit by the unsupervised covariance rule, D (ψ)←λD (ψ)+Λ (v {p_(τ)}−

v {p_(τ)}

) ({hacek over (v)}_(t) (ψ)−

{hacek over (v)}_(t) (ψ)

)′. A processing unit in the fifth embodiment is called an unsupervised processing unit (UPU). So is a processing unit in the second embodiment, wherein the code deviation accumulation vectors and code covariance matrices in said processing unit have been determined as those in the sixth embodiment and held fixed.

The sixth embodiment of the present invention is the second embodiment, wherein each processing unit further comprises supervised accumulation learning means for adjusting the code deviation accumulation vectors, C (ψ), ψ=1, . . . , Ψ, in response to a vector v_(t) that is input to said processing unit by the unsupervised accumulation rule,

$\left. {C(\psi)}\leftarrow{{\lambda \; {C(\psi)}} + {\frac{\Lambda}{2}\left( {{{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{t}(\psi)} - {\langle{{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{t}(\psi)}\rangle}} \right)^{\prime}}} \right.;$

and supervised learning means for using a label r_(t) of v_(t) provided from outside said processing unit and code deviation vectors {hacek over (v)}_(t) (ψ)−

{hacek over (v)}_(t) (ψ)

to adjust the code covariance matrices, D (ψ), ψ=1, . . . , Ψ, in response to a vector v_(t) that is input to said processing unit by the supervised covariance rule, D (ψ)←λD (ψ)+Λ (r_(t)−½) ({hacek over (v)}_(t) (ψ)−

{hacek over (v)}_(t) (ψ)

)′. A processing unit here in the sixth embodiment is called a supervised processing unit (SPU). So is a processing unit in the second embodiment, wherein the code deviation accumulation vectors and code covariance matrices in said processing unit have been determined as those in the sixth embodiment and held fixed.

The seventh embodiment of the present invention is the second embodiment, wherein each processing unit (PU) further includes: memory means for storing a plurality of learning masking factors; means for evaluating a third sum of products each of a first product and a learning masking factor; means for evaluating R fourth sums, each of which is a sum of products each of a second product and a learning masking factor, and using said third sum and said fourth sum to evaluate a representation of a second subjective probability distribution; and unsupervised learning means for using R pseudorandom numbers generated in accordance with said second subjective probability distribution and at least one code deviation vector to adjust at least one code covariance matrix in response to a vector that is input to said processing unit by the unsupervised covariance rule. With a set of masking factors for retrieving and a second set of masking factors for unsupervised learning, a PU can distinguish learned input vectors with small differences and to generalize on parts of input vectors having larger differences with learned input vectors.

The seventh embodiment of the present invention is the second embodiment, wherein a plurality of processing units are unsupervised processing units, which form a network called a clusterer, and at least one processing unit is a supervised processing unit that receives vectors from an unsupervised processing unit in said clusterer, the set of at least one supervised processing unit being called an interpreter.

The present invention can also be embodied as systems, in which artificial neuronal encoder, synapses, and nonspiking/spiking neurons are respectively embodied as encoding means, memory means, and evaluation means; and learning means in an ANN remain to be learning means. The following embodiment is an example.

The eighth embodiment of the present invention is a system for processing data, said system comprising a least one processing unit, each processing unit comprising encoding means for encoding a vector that is input to said encoder into a neuronal code that has an orthogonality property; memory means for storing at least one code deviation accumulation vector, at least one code covariance matrix and at least one masking matrix; means for evaluating a first product of a code deviation accumulation vector, a masking matrix and a code deviation vector that is the deviation of a neuronal code from an average neuronal code; means for evaluating a second product of a code covariance matrix, a masking matrix and a code deviation vector that is the deviation of a neuronal code from an average neuronal code; and evaluation means for using at least one first product and at least one second product to evaluate a representation of a first subjective probability distribution of a label of a vector that is input to said processing unit.

The present invention can also be embodied as methods, in which the functions of artificial neuronal encoder, synapses, nonspiking/spiking neurons and learning means in an ANN are respectively embodied as steps. The following embodiment is an example.

The ninth embodiment of the present invention is a method for processing data that includes the steps of encoding a subvector of a first vector into a neuronal code with an orthogonality property; evaluating a code deviation vector that is the deviation of a neuronal code from an average neuronal code; evaluating a first product of an entry of a code deviation accumulation vector, a component of a code deviation vector and a masking factor; evaluating a second product of an entry of a code covariance matrix, a component of a code deviation vector and a masking factor; evaluating a first sum of first products; evaluating at least one second sum of second products; and using said first sum and said at least one second sum to evaluate a representation of a subjective probability distribution of a component of a label of said first vector.

4 DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS

In the present invention disclosure, the prime ′ denotes matrix transposition, a vector is regarded as a subvector of the vector itself, a column or row vector is also a matrix, and [a_(ij)] denotes a matrix whose (i, j)th entry is a_(ij). If a_(ij), i=1, . . . , m, j=1, . . . , n, then they are contained in the m×n matrix [a_(ij)]. Evaluating a_(ij), i=1, . . . , m, j=1, . . . , n, is equivalent to evaluating the m×n matrix [a_(ij)].

Preferred embodiments of the present invention will now be further described in the following paragraphs of the specification and may be better understood when read in conjunction with the attached drawings, in which:

FIG. 1 illustrates an artificial neuronal node 7, represented by a solid dot, in the LOM. The artificial neuronal node has two input variables, v and u, and one output φ (v, u)=−2vu+v+u. If v and u are binary digits, φ (v, u) acts like the logic gate, XOR (exclusive-or).

FIG. 2 is a three-dimensional graph of the output φ (v, u) of an artificial neuronal node over the unit square [0, 1]². Note that the domain of the function φ (v, u) contains the unit square as a subset. The saddle shape of φ (v, u) shows that the artificial neuronal node is robust: If strengths of spikes change in travelling through dendrites/exons or if the spikes are corrupted by biological noises in the dendrites/exons, the outputs of the artificial neuronal node suffer from a graceful degradation. The hyperbolic polynomial −2vu+v+u is an idealized approximation of the XOR logic gate and henceforth called the XOR polynomial.

FIG. 3 illustrates an artificial neuronal encoder with four inputs v_(ti), i=1, . . . , 4; and 16 outputs listed on the right side of the artificial neuronal encoder. It is an upper part of an artificial neuronal tree, performing neuronal encoding. The solid dots represent artificial neuronal nodes as shown in FIG. 1. Because of the commutativity and associativity of the XOR polynomial, there are many possible branching structures with the same inputs and outputs.

FIG. 4 illustrates an artificial neuronal encoder 6 that generates the 2^(m)-dimensional neuronal code {hacek over (v)} of an m-dimensional vector v input to the artificial neuronal encoder in a recursive manner.

FIG. 5 a illustrates a deviation evaluator 12 that evaluates the code deviation {hacek over (v)}_(tj)−

{hacek over (v)}_(tj)

of an artificial neuronal code {hacek over (v)}_(tj) from it average

{hacek over (v)}_(tj)

, where the average

${\langle{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{tj}\rangle}\mspace{14mu} {is}\mspace{14mu} \frac{1}{q_{v}}{\sum\limits_{\tau = {t - q_{v} + 1}}^{t}{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{tj}}$

of {hacek over (v)}_(tj) over a time window [t−q_(v)+1, t] with the window width q_(v); an unsupervised learning scheme that adjusts an entry D_(ij) of the code covariance matrix D using the unsupervised covariance rule 14 a; a unit-time delay 8; an artificial synapse denoted by

18 d that stores the entry D_(ij) of the code covariance matrix D after a unit-time delay 8 and evaluates the product D_(ij) ({hacek over (v)}_(tj)−

{hacek over (v)}_(tj)

); and artificial spiking neuron i 10 that uses such products from artificial synapses and a graded signal c_(t) from an artificial nonspiking neuron to generate an output u_(ti). Note that the unsupervised learning rule 14 a inputs the artificial code deviation {hacek over (v)}_(tj)−

{hacek over (v)}_(tj)

and the output u_(ti) from the artificial spiking neuron i 10 as the ith component r_(ti) of the label r_(t) of v_(t).

FIG. 6 a illustrates a deviation evaluator 12 that evaluates the code deviation {hacek over (v)}_(tj)−

{hacek over (v)}_(tj)

of an artificial neuronal code {hacek over (v)}_(tj) from its average

{hacek over (v)}_(tj)

, where the average

${\langle{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{tj}\rangle}\mspace{14mu} {is}\mspace{14mu} \frac{1}{q_{v}}{\sum\limits_{\tau = {t - q_{v} + 1}}^{t}{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{tj}}$

of {hacek over (v)}_(tj) over a time window [t−q_(v)+1, t] with the window width q_(v); a supervised learning scheme that adjusts an entry D_(ij) of the code covariance matrix D using the supervised covariance rule 14 b; a unit-time delay 8; an artificial synapse

18 d that stores the entry D_(ij) of the code covariance matrix D after a unit-time delay and evaluates the product D_(ij) ({hacek over (v)}_(tj)−

{hacek over (v)}_(tj)

); and artificial spiking neuron i 10 that uses such products from artificial synapses and a graded signal c_(t) from an artificial nonspiking neuron to generate an output u_(ti). Note that the supervised learning rule 14 b inputs the code deviation {hacek over (v)}_(tj)−

{hacek over (v)}_(tj)

and the component w_(ti) of a label w_(t) of the measurements in the receptive field of model spiking neuron i, that w_(t) is provided from outside the LOM (e.g., a handcrafted label w_(t)) as the ith component r_(ti) of the label r_(t) for the unsupervised covariance rule.

FIG. 7 a illustrates a deviation evaluator 12 that evaluates the code deviation {hacek over (v)}_(tj)−

{hacek over (v)}_(tj)

of an artificial neuronal code {hacek over (v)}_(tj) from its average

{hacek over (v)}_(tj)

, where the average

{hacek over (v)}_(tj)

is

$\frac{1}{q_{v}}{\sum\limits_{\tau = {t - q_{v} + 1}}^{t}{{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{tj}\mspace{14mu} {of}\mspace{14mu} {\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{tj}}}$

over a time window [t−q_(v)+1, t] with the window length q_(v); an unsupervised accumulation learning scheme 20 that adjusts an entry C_(j) of the code deviation accumulation vector C using the unsupervised accumulation rule 20; a unit-time delay 8; an artificial synapse

18 c that stores the entry C_(j) of the code deviation accumulation vector C after a unit-time delay and evaluates the product C_(j) ({hacek over (v)}_(tj)−

{hacek over (v)}_(tj)

); and artificial nonspiking neuron i 16 that sums such products from artificial synapses as an output c_(t). Note that the unsupervised accumulation rule 20 inputs only the component {hacek over (v)}_(tj)−

{hacek over (v)}_(tj)

of the code deviation vector {hacek over (v)}_(t)−

{hacek over (v)}_(t)

.

FIG. 8 shows an artificial synapse denoted by

18 d that stores an entry D_(ij) of the code covariance matrix D and performs the multiplication of its input {hacek over (v)}_(tj)−

{hacek over (v)}_(tj)

and its weight D_(ij). FIG. 8 also shows an artificial synapse denoted by

18 c that stores an entry C_(j) of the code deviation accumulation vector C and performs the multiplication of its input {hacek over (v)}_(tj)−

{hacek over (v)}_(tj)

and its weight C_(j).

FIG. 9 shows the data for supervised learning in EXAMPLE 2a, unsupervised learning in EXAMPLE 2b, and unsupervised learning in EXAMPLE 2c at the vertices of a cube. The digits 17 in the squares at the vertices are labels for supervised learning. The question marks 15 indicate that the labels are unknown and unsupervised learning is necessary.

FIG. 10 shows an artificial synapse denoted by

18 d that stores an entry D_(ij) of the code covariance matrix D and performs the multiplication of its input {hacek over (v)}_(tj)−

{hacek over (v)}_(tj)

and its weight D_(ij). Denoting the jth diagonal entry of the masking matrix M by M_(jj), the product D_(ij) ({hacek over (v)}_(tj)−

{hacek over (v)}_(tj)

) obtained by the artificial synapse is multiplied by the masking factor M_(jj) 22, resulting in d_(τij)=M_(jj)D_(ij) ({hacek over (v)}_(tj)−

{hacek over (v)}_(tj)

), which is the (i, j)th entry of the matrix [d_(τij)]. FIG. 10 also shows an artificial synapse denoted by

18 c that stores an entry C_(j) of the code deviation accumulation matrix C and performs the multiplication of its input {hacek over (v)}_(tj)−

{hacek over (v)}_(tj)

and its weight C_(j). The product C_(j) ({hacek over (v)}_(tj)−

{hacek over (v)}_(tj)

) obtained by the artificial synapse denoted by

18 c is multiplied by the masking factor M_(jj) 22, resulting in c_(τj)=M_(jj)C_(j) ({hacek over (v)}_(tj)−

{hacek over (v)}_(tj)

), which is the jth entry of the row vector [c_(τj)].

FIG. 11 illustrates an artificial neuronal encoder, wherein artificial neuronal nodes 7 are represented by large dots; an artificial nonspiking neuron 16, an artificial spiking neuron 10, the artificial synapses denoted by

18 c, 18 d, and the masking matrix M denoted by the dashed line 15, that are used in EXAMPLES 2a, 2b and 2c. The dashed line 15 represents a masking factor following an artificial synapse on each feedforward connection. In unsupervised accumulation learning, the weights in artificial synapses 18 c are adjusted by the unsupervised accumulation rule 20 as shown in FIG. 7 b. For unsupervised covariance learning, the teaching signal r_(τ) is the output vector u_(τ)=v {p_(τ)} of the spiking neuron, and the unsupervised covariance rule (14 a in FIG. 5 b) is used to adjust the weights in artificial synapses denoted by 18 d. For supervised covariance learning, the teaching signal r_(τ) is a label w_(τ) of input vector v_(τ), that is provided from outside the LOM, and the supervised covariance rule (14 b in FIG. 6 b) is used to adjust the weights in artificial synapses denoted by

18 d.

FIG. 12 illustrates the masking matrix M 21 for an artificial neuronal encoder that encodes an m-dimensional vector v_(t) into its 2^(m)-dimensional neuronal code {hacek over (v)}_(t). M is a 2^(m)×2^(m) diagonal matrix diag(M₁₁ . . . M₂ _(m) ₂ _(m) ), whose diagonal entries are called masking factors. M{hacek over (v)}_(t) eliminates (or reduces) the effect of the corrupted, distorted or occluded components of v_(t) to enable generalization on other components. The greater J is, the effect of more components of v_(t) can be eliminated (or reduced). The factor 2^(−ηj) is used to de-emphasize the effect of subvectors of v_(t) in accordance with the number j of components of v_(t) included in (i₁ ⁻, i₂ ⁻, . . . , i_(j) ⁻). The constant J is preselected with consideration of dim v_(t) and the application.

FIG. 5 b is the same as FIG. 5 a except the addition of the masking factor M_(jj) 22 that is multiplied to the output D_(ij) ({hacek over (v)}_(tj)−

{hacek over (v)}_(tj)

) from the artificial synapse 18 d to yield the product d_(tij)=M_(jj)D_(ij) ({hacek over (v)}_(tj)−

{hacek over (v)}_(tj)

). Artificial spiking neuron i 10 then uses such products and a graded signal c_(t) from an artificial nonspiking neuron to generate an output u_(ti). Note that the unsupervised learning rule 14 a inputs the artificial code deviation {hacek over (v)}_(tj)−

{hacek over (v)}_(tj)

and the output u_(ti) from the artificial spiking neuron i 10 as the ith component r_(ti) of the label r_(t) of v_(t).

FIG. 6 b is the same as FIG. 6 a except the addition of the masking factor M_(jj) 22 that is multiplied to the output D_(ij) ({hacek over (v)}_(tj)−

{hacek over (v)}_(tj)

) from the artificial synapse 18 d to yield the product d_(tij)=M_(jj)D_(ij) ({hacek over (v)}_(tj)−

{hacek over (v)}_(tj)

). Artificial spiking neuron i 10 then uses such products and a graded signal c_(t) from an artificial nonspiking neuron to generate an output u_(ti). Note that the supervised learning rule 14 b inputs the code deviation {hacek over (v)}_(tj)−

{hacek over (v)}_(tj)

and the component w_(ti) of a label w_(t) of the measurements in the receptive field of model spiking neuron i, that w_(t) is provided from outside the LOM (e.g., a handcrafted label w_(t)) as the ith component r_(ti) of the label r_(t) for the unsupervised covariance rule.

FIG. 7 b is the same as FIG. 7 a except the addition of the masking factor M_(jj) 22 that is multiplied to the output C_(j) ({hacek over (v)}_(tj)−

{hacek over (v)}_(tj)

) from the artificial synapse 18 c to yield the product c_(tj)=M_(jj)C_(j) ({hacek over (v)}_(tj)−

{hacek over (v)}_(tj)

). Artificial nonspiking neuron 16 then sums such products as an output c_(t). Note that the unsupervised accumulation rule inputs only the component {hacek over (v)}_(tj)−

{hacek over (v)}_(tj)

of the code deviation vector {hacek over (v)}_(t)−

{hacek over (v)}_(t)

.

FIG. 13 shows that the product M{hacek over (v)}_(τ) in EXAMPLE 3 consists of four terms, {hacek over (v)}_(τ), (diagÎ (1⁻) {hacek over (v)}_(τ) (diagÎ (2⁻)) {hacek over (v)}_(τ), and (diagÎ (3⁻)) {hacek over (v)}_(τ), where (diagÎ (j⁻)) {hacek over (v)}_(τ) has the components in {hacek over (v)}_(τ) that involve v_(τj) eliminated. These four terms can be viewed as the outputs of four artificial neuronal encoders shown in (a) 26, (b) 28, (c) 30 and (d) 32 in response to four overlapped and nested input vectors, v_(τ)=[v_(τ1) v_(τ2) v_(τ3)]′, [v_(τ2) v_(τ3)]′, [v_(τ1) v_(τ3)]′, and [v_(τ1) v_(τ2)]′, respectively. The product M{hacek over (v)}_(τ) is the sum of the outputs in (a), (b), (c) and (d). Although there are two parts for (diagÎ (3⁻)) {hacek over (v)}_(τ) in (d), they can be replaced with a single neuronal encoder, namely the upper neuronal (e.g., dendritic) part in (d) with φ (v_(τ2), v_(τ2))=0 added to replace φ (v_(τ2), v_(τ2))=0 in the lower neuronal (e.g., dendritic) part.

FIG. 14 illustrates three neuronal encoders 36 in a PU (processing unit). Let v_(t) (ψ), ψ=1, 2, 3, be subvectors of the vector v_(t) 34 input to the PU, where the components of v_(t) (ψ) are randomly selected from those of v_(t) such that the union of all the components of v_(t) (ψ), ψ=1, 2, 3, is the set of components of v_(t). The locations of the components of v_(t) (1), v_(t) (2) and v_(t) (3) are indicated by x, y and z in the circle 34, respectively. The subvectors v_(t) (ψ), ψ=1, 2, 3, are encoded by model neuronal encoders 36 into neuronal codes {hacek over (v)}_(t) (ψ), ψ=1, 2, 3, which form the general neuronal code {hacek over (v)}_(t)=[v_(t)′ (1) v_(t)′ (2) v_(t)′ (3)]′ of the vector v_(t) input to the PU. Note that this {hacek over (v)}_(t) here is different from the neuronal code of the vector v_(t) input to the PU.

FIG. 15 illustrates two artificial neuronal encoders that input subvectors, v_(τ) (1) and v_(τ) (2), of the vector v_(τ). v_(τ) (1) and v_(τ) (2) are overlapped. With the masking factors indicated by the dashed line denoted by M, the two artificial neuronal encoders are used to encode one input vector v_(τ) into the general neuronal code {hacek over (v)}_(t) to v_(t) reduce the number of synapses (from 16 to 12) required and to increase the generalization capability.

FIG. 16 illustrates the group 40 of artificial neuronal encoders (NEs) 36 in a PU (processing unit). The vector input to the PU is v_(t). Let v_(t) (ψ), ψ=1, . . . , Ψ, be subvectors of the vector v_(t) 34 input to the PU, where the components of v_(t) (ψ) are randomly selected from v_(t) such that the union of all the components of v_(t) (ψ), ψ=1, . . . , Ψ, is the set of components of v_(t). The subvectors v_(t) (ψ), ψ=1, . . . , Ψ, are encoded by artificial neuronal encoders 36 into neuronal codes {hacek over (v)}_(t) (ψ), ψ=1, . . . , Ψ, which form the general neuronal code {hacek over (v)}_(t)=[{hacek over (v)}_(t)′ (1) {hacek over (v)}_(t)′ (Ψ)]′ of the vector input to the PU.

FIG. 17 illustrates the general masking matrix M in a PU, wherein M (ψ) is the masking matrix for neuronal encoder ψ for ψ=1, . . . , Ψ. Note that η can be preselected for a given magnitude of dim v_(t) (ψ) and the application. M{hacek over (v)}_(t), where {hacek over (v)}_(t) is the general neuronal code, reduces or eliminates the effect of the corrupted, distorted, occluded, noised, or erased components of the vector v_(t) input to the PU. Note that the vector [Σ_(j)M_(jj)D_(ij) ({hacek over (v)}_(τj)−

{hacek over (v)}_(τj)

)], where Σ_(j) is taken over j=1, . . . , Σ_(ψ=1) ^(Ψ) 2^(dim v(ψ)), is equal to the vector DM ({hacek over (v)}_(τ)−

{hacek over (v)}_(τ)

), because M is a diagonal matrix.

FIG. 18 provides the formulas 42 of the general neuronal code {hacek over (v)}_(t), the average general neuronal code

{hacek over (v)}_(t)

, the general code deviation accumulation vectors C, and the general code covariance matrix D, whose D (ψ), ψ=1, . . . , Ψ, are learned by the unsupervised covariance rule in an unsupervised PU (UPU) or by the supervised covariance rule in a supervised PU (SPU).

FIG. 19 illustrates an artificial nonspiking neuron 16 in a PU, which evaluates the sum c_(τ) of its inputs, c_(τj), j=1, . . . , Σ_(ψ=1) ^(Ψ) 2^(dim v) ^(τ) ^((ψ)), which are computed using the general neuronal code deviation {hacek over (v)}_(τ)−

{hacek over (v)}_(τ)

, the general masking matrix M and the general code deviation accumulation vector C.

FIG. 20 illustrates artificial spiking neuron k 10 in a PU. It inputs d_(τkj), j=1, . . . , Σ_(ψ=1) ^(Ψ) 2^(dim v) ^(τ) ^((ψ)), which are computed using c_(τ) and the general neuronal code deviation {hacek over (v)}_(τ)−

{hacek over (v)}_(τ)

, the general masking matrix M and the general code covariance matrix D; and evaluates the sum Σ_(j) d_(τkj) of d_(τkj), j=1, . . . , Σ_(ψ=1) ^(Ψ) 2^(dim v) ^(τ) ^((ψ)). If c_(τ)=0, the artificial spiking neuron k then sets p_(τk)=½. If c_(τ)≠0, the artificial spiking neuron k then sets p_(τk)=((Σ_(j) d_(τkj))/c_(τ)+1)/2. The artificial spiking neuron generates a pseudo-random number v {p_(τk)} as follows: v {p_(τk)}=1 with probability p_(τk) and v {p_(τk)}=0 with probability 1−p_(τk).

FIG. 21 illustrates a PU (processing unit) 56 without a learning mechanism. A general code deviation accumulation vector C and a general code covariance matrix D are stored in synapses 48. If the D was learned before in accordance with the unsupervised covariance rule, the PU 56 is called an unsupervised processing unit (UPU). If D was learned before in accordance with the supervised covariance rule, the PU 56 is called a supervised processing unit (SPU). At time or numbering τ, the PU receives v_(τ). The neuronal encoders 40 encode it into the general neuronal code {hacek over (v)}_(τ). The synapses 48 compute the entries of the matrix [D_(kj) ({hacek over (v)}_(tj)−

{hacek over (v)}_(tj)

)] and the vector [C_(j) ({hacek over (v)}_(tj)−

{hacek over (v)}_(tj)

)], which entries are multiplied to the masking factors M_(jj) 46 to yield the matrix [d_(τkj)]=[M_(jj)D_(kj) ({hacek over (v)}_(tj)−

{hacek over (v)}_(tj)

)] and the vector [c_(τj)]=[M_(jj)C_(j) ({hacek over (v)}_(tj)−

{hacek over (v)}_(tj)

)]. The masking factor M_(jj) is the jth diagonal entry of the general masking matrix M 46.

There are R artificial spiking neurons 50 and one artificial nonspiking neuron 16 in the PU. The artificial nonspiking neuron sums up c_(τj) to form c_(τ). For k=1, . . . , R, artificial spiking neuron k sums up d_(τkj) to form d_(τk) and divides d_(τk) by c_(τ) to get y_(τk). The vector p_(τ) with components p_(τk)=(y_(τk)+1)/2 represents a subjective probability distribution of the label of v_(τ) input to the PU For k=1, . . . , R, artificial spiking neuron k generates a pseudorandom number u_(τk)=v {p_(τk)} in accordance with the subjective probability p_(τk). The pseudo-random vector v {p_(τ)} is a point estimate of the label of v_(τ) according to the subjective probability distribution p_(τ) and is the output vector of the PU 56 at time or numbering τ. Over time, the R components of u_(τ)=v {p_(τ)} form R spike trains.

FIG. 22 illustrates an UPU with an unsupervised learning mechanism 60 to learn the code covariance matrix D and an unsupervised learning mechanism 58 to learn the code deviation accumulation vector C. The former 60 learns in accordance with the unsupervised covariance rule,

D←λD+Λ(u _(τ) −

u _(τ)

)({hacek over (v)} _(τ) −

{hacek over (v)} _(τ)

)′

where u_(τ)=v {p_(τ)} that is the output of the PU and is actually used by the PU as a label r_(τ) of v_(τ), and the latter 58 learns in accordance with the unsupervised accumulation rule

$\left. C\leftarrow{{\lambda \; C} + {\frac{\Lambda}{2}\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau}\rangle}} \right)^{\prime}}} \right.$

The adjusted C and D are delayed for one unit of time or one numbering 8 before being stored in the artificial synapses 48.

FIG. 23 illustrates an SPU with a supervised learning mechanism 62 to learn the code covariance matrix D and an unsupervised learning mechanism 58 to learn the code deviation accumulation vector C. The former 62 learns in accordance with the supervised covariance rule,

D←λD+Λ(r _(τ)−½)({hacek over (v)} _(τ) −

{hacek over (v)} _(τ)

)′

where r_(τ) denotes the label of the vector v, input to the SPU 64, and the latter 58 learns in accordance with the unsupervised accumulation rule

$\left. C\leftarrow{{\lambda \; C} + {\frac{\Lambda}{2}\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau}\rangle}} \right)^{\prime}}} \right.$

The adjusted C and D are delayed for one unit of time or one numbering 8 before being stored in the artificial synapses 48.

FIG. 24 illustrates an UPU with an unsupervised learning mechanism 60 to learn the code covariance matrix D that uses learning masking factors M_(jj) ^(#) and an unsupervised learning mechanism 58 to learn the code deviation accumulation vector C. M_(jj) ^(#) are the diagonal entries of the learning masking matrices, M^(#) (ψ), ψ=1, . . . , Ψ, which have a smaller J in (32) than the masking matrices M (ψ) in the same UPU do.

The UPU (with learning masking matrices M^(#) (ψ), ψ=1, . . . , Ψ), generates an estimate v {p_(τ) ^(#)} of the label of the vector v_(τ) input to the UPU using its masking matrices M (ψ), ψ=1, . . . , Ψ, as before. However, when it comes to learning, the learning masking matrices M^(#) (ψ), ψ=1, . . . , Ψ, are used instead to generate an estimate v {p_(τ) ^(#)} of the label of v_(t), and the general code covariance matrix D is adjusted by

D(ψ)←λD(ψ)+Λ(v{p _(τ) ^(#) }−

v{p _(τ) ^(#)}

)({hacek over (v)} _(τ) −

{hacek over (v)} _(τ)

)′

for ψ=1, . . . , Ψ. The generation of v {p_(τ) ^(#)} is described in the Subsection on “Learning Masking Factors for Unsupervised Learning of Smaller Differences” and summaried in 62 in FIG. 24. The code deviation accumulation vector C is learned in accordance with the unsupervised accumulation rule

$\left. C\leftarrow{{\lambda \; C} + {\frac{\Lambda}{2}\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau}\rangle}} \right)^{\prime}}} \right.$

The adjusted C and D are delayed for one unit of time or one numbering 8 before being stored in the artificial synapses 48.

FIG. 25 illustrates layer l and layer l+2 of an example LOM with a feedback connection from layer l to layer l and another from layer l+2 to layer l. The former contains 1 unit-time delay device 8, and the latter 5 unit-time delay devices 8. The box under layer l of PUs does not represent a model of a biological entity. It shows only how both the feedforwarded and feedbacked spike trains are assembled into the vector input to layer l. Note that only the feedbacks from layer l and layer l+2 are shown here. There can be feedbacks from other layers. Note also that for notational simplicity, we feedback all outputs from layer l and layer l+2, but this is not necessary.

FIG. 26 illustrates an example LOM with three layers of PUs. There are three types of feedback connection: same-layer feedbacks, one-layer feedbacks, and two-layer feedbacks. The delay durations on the feedback connections are not specified in the delay boxes 76. The PUs 74 can be UPUs or SPUs. The second delay box on a feedback connection represents an additional delay.

FIG. 27 illustrates the entire clusterer with three layers of UPUs 78 in an example LOM.

FIG. 28 illustrates an example LOM consisting of the clusterer from FIG. 27 and an interpreter with three SPUs 80. The feedback connections and delays on them in the clusterer in FIG. 27 are not shown for clarify in FIG. 28.

5 DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

In the terminology of artificial neural networks, machine learning, and pattern recognition, a feature vector is a transformation of a measurement vector, whose components are measurements or sensor outputs. As a special case, the transformation is the identity transformation, and the feature vector is the measurement vector. Example measurement vectors are digital photographs, frames of a video, segments of speech and handwritten characters/words/numbers. In the present invention disclosure, a feature vector is usually referred to as a vector, unless an emphasis that a vector is a transformation of a measurement vector is needed.

The present invention disclosure discloses a low-order model (LOM) of biological neural networks, the Clustering Interpreting Probabilistic Associative Memory (CIPAM), and other ANNs (artificial neural networks) that are equivalent to the LOM and the CIPAM in the sense that they can be obtained by transforming the LOM or the CIPAM with an affine function and its inverse. The LOM and its equivalent ANNs including the CIPAM are systems that receive and process feature vectors or sequences of feature vectors. Such feature vectors input to the LOM, the CIPAM or another ANN equivalent to them are called exogenous feature vectors. The LOM and ANNs (including the CIPAM) equivalent to the LOM can be viewed as a new ANN paradigm and a new type of learning machine.

The LOM or an ANN equivalent to it is a network of processing units (PUs) with or without feedback connections. If an LOM or an ANN equivalent to it (e.g., CIPAM) is a multilayer network, a vector input to a layer of the network is a feature vector, because it is a transformation of exogenous feature vectors input to the LOM or the ANN and is in turn a transformation of the measurement vectors. A feature vector input to layer l comprises a vector output from layer l−1 and vectors output and feedbacked from the same or other layers. For example, if there is a feedback connection to layer 1, then an exogenous feature vector is not an entire feature vector input to layer 1, but only a subvector of said entire feature vector.

The LOM, the CIPAM and their equivalent models are each a network of models of the biological neuronal node/encoder, synapse, spiking/nonspiking neuron, means for learning, feedback connection, maximal generalization scheme, feedback connection, etc. For simplicity, these component models are often referred to without the word “model”. For example, the model neuronal node, model neuronal encoder, model neuronal tree, model spiking/nonspiking neuron, model synapse, etc. will be referred to as the neuronal node, neuronal encoder, neuronal tree, spiking/nonspiking neuron, synapse, etc. respectively. The LOM, the CIPAM and all their equivalent models can be used as artificial neural networks (ANNs). To emphasize that their components are artificial components in these artificial neural networks, they are referred to as the artificial neuronal node, artificial neuronal encoder, artificial neuronal tree, artificial spiking/nonspiking neuron, artificial synapse, etc. respectively.

We will first describe the LOM and then show how the LOM is transformed into the CIPAM and the general ANN equivalent to the LOM by the use of the affine functions.

In the present invention disclosure, the prime ′ denotes matrix transposition, a vector is regarded as a subvector of the vector itself, a column or row vector is also a matrix, and [a_(ij)] denotes a matrix whose (i, j)th entry is a_(ij). If a_(ij), i=1, . . . , m, j=1, . . . , n, then they are contained in the m×n matrix [a_(ij)]. Evaluating a_(ij), i=1, . . . , m, j=1, . . . , n, is equivalent to evaluating the m×n matrix [a_(ij)].

5.1 Model Neuronal Encoders

It was discovered in 1980's and 1990's that biological dendrites are capable of performing information processing tasks. However, neuronal trees are missing in well-known artificial neural networks, overlooking a large percentage of the neural circuit (Simon Haykin, Neural Networks and Learning Machines, Third Edition, Pearson Education, New Jersey, 2009 and Christopher M. Bishop, Pattern Recognition and Machine Learning, Springer Science, New York, 2006).

In the low-order model (LOM) disclosed in the present invention disclosure, a model neuronal (dendritic/axonal) encoder, is a network of model neuronal nodes, each of which is a low-order polynomial with two variables that acts like an XOR (exclusive-OR) logic gate when the two input variables are (bipolar) binary digits.

In this Subsection, model neuronal nodes and model neuronal encoders are described. An model neuronal encoder is a function, that encodes the vector input to the encoder into the vector output, called the neuronal code, from the encoder. The output vectors have an orthogonality property proven in the Appendix of James Ting-Ho Lo, A Low-Order Model of Biological Neural Networks, Neural Computation, Vol. 23, No. 10, pp. 2626-2682, 2011.

5.1.1 Binary Operation of a Model Neuronal Node

A model (or artificial) neuronal node is shown in FIG. 1. The input variables, v and u, to a neuronal node are usually spikes in spike trains modeled as Bernoulli processes. The output of the model neuronal node is

φ(v,u)=−2vu+v+u  (1)

which is a hyperbolic polynomial depicted over the unit square in FIG. 2. The unit square is only a part of the domain of the function φ. If v and u are binary digits, φ (v, u) is the XOR function. If not, φ (v, u) approximates the XOR function nicely. As shown in FIG. 2, the closer v and u are to binary values, the more φ acts like XOR. The farther they are to binary values, the less φ acts like XOR. For example, φ (0.9, 0.9)=0.18, φ (0.9, 0.1)=0.82, φ (0.9, 0.75)=0.3, and φ (0.75, 0.1)=0.7. φ acts more like XOR at (0.9, 0.9) and (0.9, 0.1) than at (0.9, 0.75) and (0.75, 0.1). Note that there are other polynomials (e.g., the elliptic polynomial 2v²+2u²−2vu−v−u) that act like the XOR function at binary inputs, but φ involves the least number of arithmetic operations and approximates XOR in the most reasonable manner as shown in FIG. 2. φ (v, u) is henceforth called the XOR polynomial.

5.1.2 Composition of Operations of Model Neuronal Nodes

The algebraic binary operation φ (v, u)=−2vu+v+u is commutative and also associative:

$\begin{matrix} {{\varphi \left( {w,{\varphi \left( {v,u} \right)}} \right)} = {\varphi \left( {{\varphi \left( {w,v} \right)},u} \right)}} \\ {= {{\left( {- 2} \right)^{2}{wvu}} - {2\left( {{wv} + {wu} + {vu}} \right)} + w + v + u}} \end{matrix}$

Hence, we can define a symmetric function φ_(k) by applying the binary operation repeatedly as follows:

φ_(k)(v ₁ ,v ₂ , . . . , v _(k))=φ( . . . φ(φ(v ₁ ,v ₂),v ₃), . . . , v _(k))

where φ₁ (v_(i))=v_(i) and φ₂ (v_(i), v_(j))=(v_(i), v_(j)).

It follows that

φ_(k)(v ₁ ,v ₂ , . . . , v _(k))=φ(φ_(i)(v ₁ ,v ₂ , . . . , v _(i)),φ_(k−i)(v _(i+1) ,v _(i+2) , . . . , v _(k)))

Therefore, there are many different ways to obtain φ_(k) (v₁, v₂, . . . , v_(k)). For example, φ₄ (v₁, v₂, v₃, v₄) can be obtained by φ (φ(v₁, v₂), φ (v₃, v₄)) or by φ (φ₃ (v₃, v₂, v₄), v₁).

If the model neuronal encoder has m inputs forming an input set S={v₁, v₂, . . . , v_(m)}, then the input set has 2^(m) subsets. On each of these subsets, say {v_(k) ₁ , v_(k) ₂ , v_(k) _(i) }, an output of the neuronal encoder is defined to be φ_(i) (v_(k) ₁ , v_(k) ₂ , . . . , v_(k) _(i) ). For example, if the input set is {v₁, v₂, v₃}, then the subsets are Φ, {v₁}, {v₂}, {v₂, v₁}, {v₃}, {v₃, v₁}, {v₃, v₂}, {v₃, v₂, v₁}, where Φ is the empty set. The outputs of the neuronal encoder are φ₀ (Φ), φ₁ (v₁), Φ₁ (v₂), φ₂ (v₂, v₁), φ₁ (v₃), φ₂ (v₃, v₁), φ₂ (v₃, v₂), φ₃ (v₃, v₂, v₁), where φ₀ (Φ) is defined to be 0.

Similarly, if the input set is {v₁, v₂, v₃, v₄}, the model neuronal encoder has 16 outputs φ_(i) (v_(k) ₁ , . . . , v_(k) _(i) ), where {v_(k) ₁ , . . . , v_(k) _(i) } are subsets of {v₁, v₂, v₃, v₄}. FIG. 3 shows this model neuronal encoder with four inputs and 16 outputs, where the four inputs v_(ti), i=1, 2, 3, 4, at time t are each close to a binary digit. φ_(i) (v_(k) ₁ , . . . , v_(k) _(i) ) can be evaluated by binary φ₂ or other operations φ_(k) in more than one way if i>2. Therefore, the structure of a model neuronal encoder for more than 2 inputs is not unique.

Note that φ (v_(i), v_(i))=0 and φ (0, v_(i))=v_(i). It follows that for v_(k) ₁ , v_(k) ₂ , . . . , v_(k) _(j) and v_(k) ₁ ,

$\begin{matrix} {{\varphi_{j + 1}\left( {v_{k_{1}},v_{k_{1}},v_{k_{2}},\ldots \mspace{14mu},v_{k_{j}}} \right)} = {\varphi \left( {{\varphi_{2}\left( {v_{k_{1}},v_{k_{1}}} \right)},{\varphi_{j - 1}\left( {v_{k_{2}},\ldots \mspace{14mu},v_{k_{j}}} \right)}} \right)}} \\ {= {\varphi \left( {0,{\varphi_{j - 1}\left( {v_{k_{2}},\ldots \mspace{14mu},v_{k_{j}}} \right)}} \right)}} \\ {= {\varphi_{j - 1}\left( {v_{k_{2}},\ldots \mspace{14mu},v_{k_{j}}} \right)}} \end{matrix}$

Hence, a function φ_(j) with repeated variables can be identified with a function φ_(j−2i) with different variables for some i>0. Using {v₁, v₂, . . . , v_(m)} as the input set and φ (v, u) to compose functions, we can obtain only 2^(m) different functions for input variables with binary values.

Note that model axonal encoders, model dendritic encoders, and model dendritic encoders with a dendrite or dendritic node replaced with an axon or axonal node respectively are collectively called neuronal encoders. An orthogonality property of a model neuronal encoder's output vector is discussed in the next Subsubsection and proven in the Appendix.

5.1.3 An Orthogonality Property of Neuronal Codes

To describe an orthogonality property of the outputs of a model neuronal encoder with input variables {v₁, v₂, . . . , v_(m)}, we organize its 2^(m) outputs into a vector, called the neuronal code, as follows: Let u denote a scalar and v=[v₁ v₂ . . . v_(k)]′ a k-dimensional vector. Define a k-dimensional vector φ (u, v) of polynomials by

φ(u,v)=[φ(u,v ₁)φ(u,v ₂) . . . φ(u,v _(k))]

The 2^(m) different functions that can be defined by compositions of the binary operation φ on the input set {v₁, v₂, . . . , v_(m)} are generated and organized into a 2^(m)-dimensional column vector {hacek over (v)} by recursively generating row vectors {hacek over (v)} (1, . . . , k), for k=1, 2, . . . , m, as follows:

$\begin{matrix} {{\overset{\Cup}{v}(1)} = \begin{bmatrix} 0 & v_{1} \end{bmatrix}} & (2) \\ \begin{matrix} {{\overset{\Cup}{v}\left( {1,2} \right)} = \begin{bmatrix} {\overset{\Cup}{v}(1)} & \varphi & \left( {v_{2},{\overset{\Cup}{v}(1)}} \right) \end{bmatrix}} \\ {= \begin{bmatrix} 0 & v_{1} & v_{2} & {{{- 2}\; v_{2}v_{1}} + v_{2} + v_{1}} \end{bmatrix}} \end{matrix} & (3) \\ {{\overset{\Cup}{v}\left( {1,\ldots \mspace{14mu},{k + 1}} \right)} = \left\lbrack {\begin{matrix} {\overset{\Cup}{v}\left( {1,\ldots \mspace{14mu},k} \right)} & \varphi \end{matrix}\left( {v_{k + 1},{\overset{\Cup}{v}\left( {1,\ldots \mspace{14mu},k} \right)}} \right)} \right\rbrack} & (4) \\ {\overset{\Cup}{v} = {{\overset{\Cup}{v}}^{\prime}\left( {1,\ldots \mspace{14mu},m} \right)}} & (5) \end{matrix}$

Denoting the k-th component of {hacek over (v)} by {hacek over (v)}_(k), the vector {hacek over (v)}=[{hacek over (v)}₁ {hacek over (v)}₂ . . . {hacek over (v)}₂ _(m) ]′ is called the neuronal code of v. Setting the first component of {hacek over (v)} (1) equal to zero above (instead of one) yields two properties: First, because φ (v, v)=0 and φ (v, 0)=v, two equal binary signals meeting at a neuronal node produce the first component of {hacek over (v)}, and this first component will not change other components through neuronal nodes through neuronal nodes down the stream. Second, this makes {hacek over (0)}=0. Here, 0 are the zero vectors. The above recursive way to generate the neuronal codes is also shown in FIG. 4.

It is proven in the APPENDIX of James Ting-Ho Lo, “A Low-Order Model of Biological Neural Networks,” Neural Computation, vol. 23, no. 10, pp. 2626-2682, 2011, that given two m-dimensional binary vectors, v and u, their neuronal codes, {hacek over (v)} and {hacek over (u)}, satisfy

$\begin{matrix} {{\left( {\overset{\Cup}{v} - {\frac{1}{2}I}} \right)^{\prime}\left( {\overset{\Cup}{u} - {\frac{1}{2}I}} \right)} = {2^{- 2}{\prod\limits_{k = 1}^{m}\; \left( {1 + {2^{2}\left( {v_{k} - \frac{1}{2}} \right)\left( {u_{k} - \frac{1}{2}} \right)}} \right)}}} & (6) \end{matrix}$

where I=[1 1 . . . 1]′, which we note is not the identity matrix I. If v and u are binary digits, then

$\begin{matrix} {{{\left( {\overset{\Cup}{v} - {\frac{1}{2}I}} \right)^{\prime}\left( {\overset{\Cup}{u} - {\frac{1}{2}I}} \right)} = 0},{{{if}\mspace{14mu} v} \neq u}} & (7) \\ {\mspace{200mu} {{= 2^{m - 2}},{{{if}\mspace{14mu} v} = u}}} & (8) \end{matrix}$

Note that if the components of u and v assume values from the set {0, ½, 1}, we have the following additional properties:

$\begin{matrix} {{{1.\mspace{11mu} {If}\mspace{14mu} \left( {v_{k} - \frac{1}{2}} \right)\left( {u_{k} - \frac{1}{2}} \right)} = {0\mspace{14mu} {for}\mspace{14mu} {some}\mspace{14mu} k\mspace{14mu} {in}\mspace{14mu} \left\{ {1,\ldots \mspace{14mu},m} \right\}}}\mspace{155mu} {{{{then}\mspace{110mu} \left( {\overset{\Cup}{v} - {\frac{1}{2}I}} \right)}^{\prime}\left( {\overset{\Cup}{u} - {\frac{1}{2}I}} \right)} = {2^{- 2}{\prod\limits_{{j = 1},{j \neq k}}^{m}\left( {1 + {2^{2}\left( {v_{j} - \frac{1}{2}} \right)\left( {u_{j} - \frac{1}{2}} \right)}} \right)}}}} & (9) \\ {{{{2.\mspace{11mu} {If}\mspace{14mu} \left( {\overset{\Cup}{v} - {\frac{1}{2}I}} \right)^{\prime}\left( {\overset{\Cup}{u} - {\frac{1}{2}I}} \right)} \neq {0\mspace{14mu} {then}}}\mspace{380mu}  {{\left( {\overset{\Cup}{v} - {\frac{1}{2}I}} \right)^{\prime}\left( {\overset{\Cup}{u} - {\frac{1}{2}I}} \right)}\mspace{20mu} = 2^{{4{({v - {\frac{1}{2}I}})}^{\prime}{({u - {\frac{1}{2}I}})}} - 2}}}\mspace{45mu}} & (10) \end{matrix}$

EXAMPLE 1a

If v=[1 0 1 0]′ and u=[1 0 1 1]′, then {hacek over (v)} (1)=[0 1], {hacek over (v)} (1, 2)=[0 1 φ (0, 0) φ (0, 1)]=[0 1 0 1], {hacek over (v)} (1, 2, 3)=[0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0], and

{hacek over (v)}=[0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0]′

{hacek over (u)}=[0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1]′

It follows that {hacek over (v)}−½I and {hacek over (u)}−½I are respectively

$\begin{matrix} \begin{bmatrix} {- \frac{1}{2}} & \frac{1}{2} & {- \frac{1}{2}} & \frac{1}{2} & \frac{1}{2} & {- \frac{1}{2}} & \frac{1}{2} & {- \frac{1}{2}} \\ {- \frac{1}{2}} & \frac{1}{2} & {- \frac{1}{2}} & \frac{1}{2} & \frac{1}{2} & {- \frac{1}{2}} & \frac{1}{2} & {- \frac{1}{2}} \end{bmatrix}^{\prime} & \; \\ \begin{bmatrix} {- \frac{1}{2}} & \frac{1}{2} & {- \frac{1}{2}} & \frac{1}{2} & \frac{1}{2} & {- \frac{1}{2}} & \frac{1}{2} & {- \frac{1}{2}} \\ \frac{1}{2} & {- \frac{1}{2}} & \frac{1}{2} & {- \frac{1}{2}} & {- \frac{1}{2}} & \frac{1}{2} & {- \frac{1}{2}} & \frac{1}{2} \end{bmatrix}^{\prime} & \; \end{matrix}$

Hence, ({hacek over (v)}−½I)′ ({hacek over (v)}−½I)=2⁴⁻² and ({hacek over (v)}−½I)′ ({hacek over (u)}−½I)=0, as predicted by (8) and (7).

5.2 Hebbian-Type Learning Rules

Three learning rules, called unsupervised covariance rule, supervised covariance rule and unsupervised accumulation rule, are described in this Subsection. The first two are essentially Terrence J. Sejnowski's covariance rule. However, the unsupervised covariance rule and supervised covariance rule herein proposed do not build up the covariance between the outputs of the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons as Sejnowski's covariance rule does. The unsupervised covariance rule builds up, in synapses, the covariance between the outputs of the presynaptic neuronal encoder and the postsynaptic neurons. The supervised covariance rule builds up the covariance between the outputs of the presynaptic neuronal encoder and the labels provided from outside the LOM that act as teaching signals for the supervised covariance learning. Like Sejnowski's covariance rule, the unsupervised and supervised covariance rules here, especially the former, can be looked upon as variants of what is commonly known as the Hebb rule. The unsupervised accumulation rule simply accumulates code deviation vectors, which are the deviations of the neuronal codes from their averages over a time window with a certain width.

5.2.1 Unsupervised Covariance Rule

There are two types of model neuron, namely model spiking neuron (also called D-neuron) and model nonspiking neuron (also called C-neuron), in the LOM. A model spiking neuron generates binary digits, and a model nonspiking neuron outputs graded signals that are transmitted to its neighboring model spiking neurons. Computations performed in these two types of neuron are described in Subsubsections 5.5.4 and 5.5.5.

Each of the 2^(m) outputs, {hacek over (v)}_(t1), {hacek over (v)}_(t2), . . . , {hacek over (v)}_(t2) _(m) , from a neuronal encoder at time (or numbering) t passes through a synapse to reach each of a number of, say R, postsynaptic model spiking neurons and a postsynaptic model nonspiking neuron. {hacek over (v)}_(t)=[{hacek over (v)}_(t1) . . . {hacek over (v)}_(t2) _(m) ]′ is called a neuronal code, and

{hacek over (v)}_(t)

=[

{hacek over (v)}_(t1)

. . .

{hacek over (v)}_(t2) _(m)

]′ denotes an average of {hacek over (v)}_(t) over a time window [t−q_(v)+1, t] with width q_(v), which is preset in consideration of the maximum size of the clusters formed using the unsupervised covariance rule (to be described) for the application. {hacek over (v)}_(t)−

{hacek over (v)}_(t)

is called a code deviation vector. It is the deviation of a neuronal code {hacek over (v)}_(t) from an average neuronal code

{hacek over (v)}_(t)

. FIG. 5 a and FIG. 5 b show an output of the neuronal encoder going through a model synapse represented by

to reach a model spiking neuron, model spiking neuron i, whose output at time t is u_(ti). The model spiking neuron usually receive signals from the synapses connected to other model neuronal encoders.

FIG. 5 a and FIG. 5 b also show how the unsupervised covariance rule updates the weight (or strength) D_(ij) of the model synapse:

D _(ij) ←λD _(ij)+Λ(u _(ti) −

u _(ti)

)({hacek over (v)} _(tj) −

{hacek over (v)} _(tj)

)  (11)

where Λ is a proportional constant, λ is a forgetting factor that is a positive number less than one, and

{hacek over (v)}_(tj)

and

u_(ti)

denote, respectively, the averages of

{hacek over (v)}_(tj)

and

u_(ti)

over time windows with preset widths. These widths may be different.

The outputs u_(ti), i=1, . . . , R, of the R model spiking neurons can be assembled into a vector, u_(t)=[u_(t1) u_(t2) u_(tR)]′, and the strengths D_(ij) into a R×2^(m) matrix D whose i×j-th entry is D_(ij). This matrix D is called a code covariance matrix. Using these notations, the unsupervised covariance rule can be expressed as follows:

D←λD+Λ(u _(t) −

u _(t)

)({hacek over (v)} _(t) −

{hacek over (v)} _(t)

)′  (12)

If the vector pairs, (v_(s), u_(s)), s=1, . . . , t, have been learned by the 2^(m) R synapses, their code covariance matrix D is

$\begin{matrix} {D = {\Lambda {\sum\limits_{s = 1}^{t}{{\lambda^{t - s}\left( {u_{s} - {\langle u_{s}\rangle}} \right)}\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{s} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{s}\rangle}} \right)^{\prime}}}}} & (13) \end{matrix}$

This learning rule (11) makes the LOM more fault-tolerant and efficient than THPAM:

-   -   1. If the model spiking neuron outputting u_(ti) or the neuronal         node outputting {hacek over (v)}_(tj) is out of order causing         u_(ti) or {hacek over (v)}_(tj)=0 or 1 or any constant for too         long, then u_(ti)−         u_(ti)         =0 or v_(ti)−         v_(ti)         =0, whence D_(ij)←λD_(ij) and D_(ij) shrinks to zero,         eliminating the effect of the faulty model spiking neuron or         neuronal node.     -   2. If {hacek over (v)}_(tj) assumes the value, 1 (or 0),         significantly more often than 0 (or 1), then         {hacek over (v)}_(tj)         is closer to 1 (or 0), {hacek over (v)}_(tj)−         {hacek over (v)}_(tj)         is smaller for {hacek over (v)}_(tj)=1 (or 0) than for {hacek         over (v)}_(tj)=0 (or 1), and D learns {hacek over (v)}_(tj) with         less intensity. The same happens if u_(ti) assumes 1 (or 0)         significantly more often than 0 (or 1). This automatically         balances out the number of additions (to store 1's) to and         subtractions (to store 0's) from D to avoid memory saturation at         a synapse.     -   3. If {hacek over (v)}_(tj) is replaced with an inhibitory         {hacek over (v)}_(th) taking on 1 or 0, then {hacek over         (v)}_(tj)−         {hacek over (v)}_(tj)         =−(−{hacek over (v)}_(tj)−         −{hacek over (v)}_(tj)         ), where −{hacek over (v)}_(tj) is excitatory, and the         orthogonality property among {hacek over (v)}_(t) remains valid.         This will be discussed more in Subsection 5.3.

These advantages of the unsupervised covariance rule are valid also for the supervised covariance rule and the unsupervised accumulation rule to be described below. In the LOM used as an artificial neural network, the formulas for the unsupervised covariance rule, (11), (12) and (13) can be replaced with

$\begin{matrix} \left. D_{ij}\leftarrow{{\lambda \; D_{ij}} + {{\Lambda \left( {u_{ti} - \frac{1}{2}} \right)}\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{tj} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{tj}\rangle}} \right)}} \right. & (14) \\ \left. D\leftarrow{{\lambda \; D} + {{\Lambda \left( {u_{t} - {\frac{1}{2}I}} \right)}\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{t} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{t}\rangle}} \right)^{\prime}}} \right. & (15) \\ {D = {\Lambda {\sum\limits_{s = 1}^{t}{{\lambda^{t - s}\left( {u_{s} - {\frac{1}{2}I}} \right)}\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{s} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{s}\rangle}} \right)^{\prime}}}}} & (16) \end{matrix}$

for less computation and more accurate estimation of the label u_(t) once it is generated and learned by the PU, where I=[1 1 . . . 1]′ with R components.

How a vocabulary is built by the unsupervised covariance rule is discussed at the end of Subsubsection 5.5.7.

5.2.2 Supervised Covariance Rule

The set of sensor elements (e.g., the pixels in the CCD of a camera) whose measurements affect the inputs to a model spiking neuron is called the receptive field of the model spiking neuron. The vectors v_(t) that are input to all the neuronal encoders that affect such inputs to a model spiking neuron have the same receptive field.

If a label w_(t) of the cause (e.g., object or pattern) that appears in the receptive field of a spiking or nonspiking neuron is provided from outside the LOM, a supervised learning can be performed. For example, if the image or sub-image appearing in the receptive field of the neuron can be identified by a human, s/he can handcraft a label w_(t) of the image or subimage.

FIG. 6 a and FIG. 6 b show how the component {hacek over (v)}_(tj) and the component w_(ti) of the label w_(t) of model spiking neuron i are used to update the weight D_(ij) in a model synapse {circle around (×)} of postsynaptic model spiking neuron i for j=1, . . . , 2^(m).

The supervised covariance rule that updates the strength D_(ij) using {hacek over (v)}_(tj) and w_(ti) is the following:

D _(ij) ←λD _(ij)+Λ(w _(ti)−½)({hacek over (v)} _(tj) −

{hacek over (v)} _(tj)

)  (17)

for j=1, . . . , 2^(m) and i=1, . . . , R, where Λ and λ are a proportion constant and a forgetting factor, and

{hacek over (v)}_(tj)

denotes the average of {hacek over (v)}_(tj) over a time window.

The synaptic weights (or strengths) D_(ij) form an R×2^(m) matrix D whose (i, j)th entry is D_(ij). This matrix D is again called a code covariance matrix. Using these notations, the covariance learning rule can be expressed as follows:

D←λD+Λ(w _(t)−½I)({hacek over (v)} _(t) −

{hacek over (v)} _(t)

)′  (18)

If the pairs, (v_(s), w_(s)), s=1, . . . , t, have been learned by the R (2^(m)) synapses, their code covariance matrix D is

$\begin{matrix} {D = {\Lambda {\sum\limits_{s = 1}^{t}{{\lambda^{t - s}\left( {w_{s} - {\frac{1}{2}I}} \right)}\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{s} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{s}\rangle}} \right)^{\prime}}}}} & (19) \end{matrix}$

Note that the update formulas, (17) and (18), and the equation (19) are the same as the update formulas, (14) and (15), and the equation (16), respectively; except that u_(t) is respectively replaced with the label w_(t) of v_(t) provided from outside the LOM. In some applications, the term ½I in (17) and (18), and (19) can be replaced with

w_(ti)

,

w_(t)

and

w_(s)

, respectively. In this case, the length of time interval on which the averages,

w_(ti)

,

w_(t)

and

w_(s)

, are taken may be different from that for

{hacek over (v)}_(tj)

,

{hacek over (v)}_(t)

and

{hacek over (v)}_(s)

.

EXAMPLE 2a

Consider a unit cube shown in FIG. 9. The vectors, v_(t), t=1, 2, . . . , 8, to be input to neuronal encoders in EXAMPLES 2a, 2b and 2c, are shown at the vertices. The signals from a teaching model spiking neuron corresponding to v_(t), t=1, 2, 3, 7, 8, are available for supervised learning. They are binary digits w_(t), t=1, 2, 3, 7, 8, respectively, enclosed in the square boxes. The supervised training data consists of the pairs, (v_(t), w_(t)), t=1, 2, 3, 7, 8. The question marks in the square boxes indicate no teaching signal is available for supervised learning.

The pairs, ({hacek over (v)}_(t)′, w_(t)), t=1, 2, 3, 7, 8, are listed as rows in the following table:

φ φ φ φ₃ {hacek over (v)}′_(t) 0 v_(t1) v_(t2) (v_(t2), v_(t1)) v_(t3) (v_(t3), v_(t1)) (v_(t3), v_(t2)) (v_(t3), v_(t2), v_(t1)) w_(t) {hacek over (v)}′₁ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 {hacek over (v)}′₂ 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 {hacek over (v)}′₃ 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 {hacek over (v)}′₇ 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 {hacek over (v)}′₈ 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1

Assume λ=Λ=1,

{hacek over (v)}_(t)

=I/2, and

w_(t)

=I/2 in (18). The code covariance matrix D is the following:

$\begin{matrix} {D = \begin{bmatrix} {- \frac{3}{4}} & \frac{1}{4} & \frac{3}{4} & \frac{3}{4} & \frac{1}{4} & \frac{1}{4} & {- \frac{1}{4}} & \frac{3}{4} \end{bmatrix}} & (20) \end{matrix}$

5.2.3 Unsupervised Accumulation Rule

The 2^(m) synapses on the connections from the output terminals of a neuronal encoder to a model nonspiking neuron are updated by the unsupervised accumulation rule:

$\begin{matrix} \left. C\leftarrow{{\lambda \; C} + {\frac{\Lambda}{2}\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{t} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{t}\rangle}} \right)^{\prime}}} \right. & (21) \end{matrix}$

FIGS. 7 a and 7 b show a model nonspiking neuron and one of its synapses

and how the component {hacek over (v)}_(tj)−

{hacek over (v)}_(tj)

of the code deviation {hacek over (v)}_(t)−

{hacek over (v)}_(t)

is used to adjust C_(j). Note that the graded output c_(t) from the model nonspiking neuron is not feedbacked for updating the synaptic strength C_(j). If the deviations {hacek over (v)}_(s)−

{hacek over (v)}_(s)

, s=1, . . . , t, have been accumulated in the 2^(m) synapses, the strengths (or weights) in them are the row vector,

$\begin{matrix} {C = {\frac{\Lambda}{2}{\sum\limits_{s = 1}^{t}{\lambda^{t - s}\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{s} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{s}\rangle}} \right)}^{\prime}}}} & (22) \end{matrix}$

This row vector C is called a code deviation accumulation vector.

EXAMPLE 2b

This is a continuation of EXAMPLE 2a. For the training data, x_(t), t=1, 2, 3, 7, 8, from EXAMPLE 2a, which is shown in FIG. 9, the code deviation accumulation vector C is the following:

$\begin{matrix} {C = \begin{bmatrix} {- \frac{5}{4}} & {- \frac{1}{4}} & \frac{1}{4} & \frac{1}{4} & {- \frac{1}{4}} & {- \frac{1}{4}} & {- \frac{3}{4}} & \frac{1}{4} \end{bmatrix}} & (23) \end{matrix}$

Note that the teaching signals, w_(t), t=1, 2, 3, 7, 8, are not needed in obtaining C by the unsupervised accumulation rule (21).

The inputs to the neuronal encoder are v_(τ1), v_(τ2), v_(τ3). The masking matrices M in the figure will be used in EXAMPLE 2c in Section 5.4. The outputs of the neuronal encoder are 0, v_(τ1), v_(τ2), φ (v_(τ2), v_(τ1)), v₃, φ (v_(τ3), v_(τ1)), φ (v_(τ3), v_(τ)), φ₃ (v_(τ3), v_(τ2), v_(τ1)). For the synapses preceding the model spiking neuron to perform supervised covariance learning, the selection lever represented by the thick line segment with a circle at its end is placed in the top position to receive a teaching signal r_(τ) provided from outside. For these synapses to perform unsupervised covariance learning, the lever is placed in the bottom position to receive a spike or nonspike v {p_(τ)} output from the model spiking neuron. For these synapses to perform no learning, the lever is placed in the middle position to receive the signal ½. The selection lever of a biological synapse is usually permanently set at one position for one type of learning. It is not clear if a biological synapse can perform supervised, unsupervised, and no learning alternately.

In c° 11, the model nonspiking neuron and model spiking neuron share the same neuronal encoder and its outputs. This is not necessary in modeling biological neural networks. As long as the model nonspiking neuron and model spiking neuron jointly provide enough information to produce a good estimate of the subjective probability distribution, they may have different neuronal encoders.

5.3 Subjective Probabilities Learned

The purpose of this Subsection is to show that an artificial neuronal encoder and the Hebbian-type learning rules disclosed in the last two Subsections working together are able to learn subjective probability distributions of the labels of the vectors input to the artificial neuronal encoder.

Once a vector v_(τ) is received by a neuronal encoder, v_(τ) is encoded by the neuronal encoder into {hacek over (v)}_(τ), which is made available to synapses for learning as well as retrieving of a point estimate of the label (u_(t) or w_(t)) of the input v_(τ), whether the label has been learned by the unsupervised covariance rule or the supervised covariance rule. This label of v_(τ), which may be u_(t) or w_(t) as defined in the preceding Subsection, is denoted by r_(τ). Recall that learned information is stored in the code covariance matrices, D and C. Upon the arrival of {hacek over (v)}_(τ), the following products, d_(τ)° and c_(τ)°, are computed by the synapses preceding the R model spiking neurons and 1 model nonspiking neuron as shown in c° 8:

d _(τ) °=D({hacek over (v)} _(τ) −

{hacek over (v)} _(τ)

)  (24)

c _(τ) °=C({hacek over (v)} _(τ) −

{hacek over (v)} _(τ)

)  (25)

where d_(τ)° is an R-dimensional vector and c_(τ)° is a scalar. Recall that {hacek over (v)}_(t)=[{hacek over (v)}_(t1) . . . {hacek over (v)}_(t2) _(m) ]′ is called a neuronal code, and

{hacek over (v)}_(t)

=[

{hacek over (v)}_(t1)

. . .

{hacek over (v)}_(t2) _(m)

]′ denotes an average of {hacek over (v)}_(t) over a time window [t−q_(v)+1, t] with width q_(v), which is preset in consideration of the size the maximum size of the clusters formed using the unsupervised covariance rule to be described for the application. {hacek over (v)}_(t)−

{hacek over (v)}_(t)

is called a code deviation vector. It is the deviation of a neuronal code {hacek over (v)}_(t) from an average neuronal code

{hacek over (v)}_(t)

.

To gain some intuitive understanding of the meanings of d_(τ)° and c_(τ)°, let us assume that λ=Λ=1, and that the averages,

w_(t)

and

{hacek over (v)}_(τ)

, are all equal to I/2. Here, I=[1 1 . . . 1]′, which we note is not the identity matrix I. Let r_(s) be an R-dimensional binary vector. Noting that the time average of a biological spike train is usually close to ½ and that the forgetting factor λ is believed to be very close to 1. The only problem with the assumption is that {hacek over (v)}_(s1)=0 and hence

{hacek over (v)}_(s1)

=0≠½. If the dimensionality of the vector {hacek over (v)}_(s) is large, the effect of missing this one term of ½ is negligible. Nevertheless, it would be interesting to see whether and how this one term exists in biological neural networks.

Under the above assumptions,

$\begin{matrix} {d_{\tau}^{o} = {\Lambda {\sum\limits_{s = 1}^{t}{\left( {r_{s} - {\langle{r_{s} -}\rangle}} \right)\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{s} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{s}\rangle}} \right)^{\prime}\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau}\rangle}} \right)}}}} \\ {= {\Lambda {\sum\limits_{s = 1}^{t}{\left( {r_{s} - {\frac{1}{2}I}} \right)\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{s} - {\frac{1}{2}I}} \right)^{\prime}\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau} - {\frac{1}{2}I}} \right)}}}} \end{matrix}$ and $\begin{matrix} {c_{\tau}^{o} = {\frac{\Lambda}{2}{\sum\limits_{s = 1}^{t}{\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{s} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{s}\rangle}} \right)^{\prime}\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau}\rangle}} \right)}}}} \\ {= {\frac{\Lambda}{2}{\sum\limits_{s = 1}^{t}{\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{s} - {\frac{1}{2}I}} \right)^{\prime}\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau} - {\frac{1}{2}I}} \right)}}}} \end{matrix}$

Under the further assumption that v_(s) and v_(τ) are binary vectors, by (7) and (8), which are proven in the APPENDIX, if v_(s)≠v_(τ), then

({hacek over (v)} _(s)−½I)′({hacek over (v)} _(τ)−½I)=0  (26)

and if v_(s)=v_(τ), then

({hacek over (v)} _(s)−½I)′({hacek over (v)} _(τ)−½I)=2^(m-2)  (27)

Therefore, under the above assumptions and the assumption that v_(s) and v_(τ) are binary vectors, for j=1, . . . , R,

$\begin{matrix} {d_{\tau \; j}^{o} = {{\Lambda\left( {\sum\limits_{\underset{{v_{s} = v_{\tau}},{r_{sj} = 1}}{s = 1}}^{t}{+ \sum\limits_{\underset{{v_{s} = v_{\tau}},{r_{sj} = 0}}{s = 1}}^{t}}} \right)}\left( {r_{sj} - \frac{1}{2}} \right)2^{m - 2}}} \\ {= {{\Lambda {\sum\limits_{\underset{{v_{s} = v_{\tau}},{r_{sj} = 1}}{s = 1}}^{t}{\left( \frac{1}{2} \right)2^{m - 2}}}} + {\Lambda {\sum\limits_{\underset{{v_{s} = v_{\tau}},{r_{sj} = 0}}{s = 1}}^{t}{\left( {- \frac{1}{2}} \right)2^{m - 2}}}}}} \\ {= {{2^{m - 3}\Lambda {\left\{ {{{v_{s}v_{s}} = v_{\tau}},{r_{sj} = 1},{s \in \left\{ {1,\ldots \mspace{14mu},t} \right\}}} \right\} }} -}} \\ {{2^{m - 3}\Lambda {\left\{ {{{v_{s}v_{s}} = v_{\tau}},{r_{sj} = 0},{s \in \left\{ {1,\ldots \mspace{14mu},t} \right\}}} \right\} }}} \end{matrix}$ and $\begin{matrix} {c_{\tau}^{o} = {\frac{\Lambda}{2}{\sum\limits_{\underset{v_{s} = v_{\tau}}{s = 1}}^{t}2^{m - 2}}}} \\ {= {2^{m - 3}\Lambda {\left\{ {{{v_{s}v_{s}} = v_{\tau}},{s \in \left\{ {1,\ldots \mspace{14mu},t} \right\}}} \right\} }}} \\ {= {{2^{m - 3}\Lambda {\left\{ {{{v_{s}v_{s}} = v_{\tau}},{r_{sj} = 1},{s \in \left\{ {1,\ldots \mspace{14mu},t} \right\}}} \right\} }} +}} \\ {{2^{m - 3}\Lambda {\left\{ {{{v_{s}v_{s}} = v_{\tau}},{r_{sj} = 0},{s \in \left\{ {1,\ldots \mspace{14mu},t} \right\}}} \right\} }}} \end{matrix}$

where |S| denotes the number of elements in the set S.

Denoting (c_(τ)°+d_(τj)°)/2 by a_(τj)°,

$\frac{a_{\tau \; j}^{o}}{c_{\tau}^{o}} = \frac{\left\{ {{{v_{s}v_{s}} = v_{\tau}},{r_{sj} = 1},{s \in \left\{ {1,\ldots \mspace{14mu},t} \right\}}} \right\} }{\left\{ {{{v_{s}v_{s}} = v_{\tau}},{s \in \left\{ {1,\ldots \mspace{14mu},t} \right\}}} \right\} }$

This is the relative frequency that r_(sj)=1 has been learned for v_(s)=v_(τ) for s=1, . . . , t. Let a_(τ)°=[a_(τ1)° a_(τ2)° . . . a_(τR)°]′. Then a_(τ)°/c_(τ)° is a relative frequence distribution of r_(τ) given v_(τ).

v_(τ) may be shared by more than one cause (or pattern) and may contain corruption, distortion, occlusion or noise caused directly or indirectly by the sensor measurements such as image pixels and sound recordings. In this case, the label r_(τ) of v_(τ) should be a random variable, which can be described or represented only by a subjective probability distribution (or a relative frequency distribution). On the other hand, v_(τ) may contain parts from more than one cause. In this case, the label r_(τ) of v_(τ) should be a fuzzy variable, which can be described or represented only by its membership function as defined in the fuzzy set theory. Fortunately, both the probabilities and membership degrees range between zero and one. The former can be learned mainly as relative frequencies over time and the latter mainly as relative proportions in each v_(τ) as represented by relative frequencies. a_(τj)°/c_(τ)° evaluated above is a relative frequency representing a probability or a membership degree. The three learning rules in the preceding Subsection facilitate learning both the subjective probabilities and membership degrees and sometimes a combination thereof. For simplicity, the membership degree and membership function will also be referred to as subjective probability and subjective probability distribution in the present invention disclosure. The fact that the subjective probability distribution (or membership function) of the label r_(τ) can be retrieved from the synapses is striking, but mathematically and naturally necessary.

If any number of components in {hacek over (v)}_(τ) change their signs and the corresponding components in {hacek over (v)}_(s) and I change their signs, then the orthogonality property, (7) and (8), still holds. If {hacek over (v)}_(tq) is inhibitory, the qth component of {hacek over (v)}_(s)−

{hacek over (v)}_(s)

and {hacek over (v)}_(τ)−

{hacek over (v)}_(τ)

change their signs. If additionally

{hacek over (v)}_(s)

=

{hacek over (v)}_(τ)

=−I/2, then a_(τj)°/c_(τ)° above is still the relative frequency that r_(sj)=1 has been learned for v_(s)=v_(τ). In general, a_(τj)°/c_(τ)° above is this relative frequency regardless of how many of the neuronal encoder' outputs {hacek over (v)}_(t) are inhibitory.

The above subjective-probability and membership-degree interpretation of a_(τ)°/c_(τ)° are valid, only if all the vectors v_(t), t=1, 2, . . . , input to the neuronal encoder are binary vectors or nearly binary vectors. Biological spiking neurons emit spike trains, where a spike and a nonspike can be looked upon as nearly binary digits. Therefore, the output vectors of a biological neuronal encoder, whose components are spikes and nonspikes, are nearly orthogonal.

EXAMPLE 1b

This example is a continuation of EXAMPLE 1a. With the v and u from EXAMPLE 1a, let a supervised training data set consists of 8 copies of u with label 1 and 2 copies of u with label 0; and 3 copies of v with label 1 and 27 copies of v with label 0. By (19) and (22), this supervised training data set is learned with λ=Λ=1 (in (19) and (22)) to form the code covariance matrix D and the code deviation accumulation vector C:

D=½(8−2)({hacek over (u)}−½I)′+½(3−27)({hacek over (v)}−½I)′

C=½(8+2)({hacek over (u)}−½I)′+½(3+27)({hacek over (v)}−½I)′

By (7) and (8), D ({hacek over (u)}−½I)=3 (4), C ({hacek over (u)}−½I)=5 (4), D ({hacek over (v)}−½I)=−12 (4), C ({hacek over (u)}−½I) 15 (4). It follows that (D ({hacek over (u)}−½I)+C ({hacek over (u)}−½I))/(2C ({hacek over (u)}−½I))= 8/10 is the relative frequency that u has been learned with label 1; and 1− 8/10= 2/10 is the relative frequency that u has been learned with label 0. Similarly, (D ({hacek over (v)}−½I)+C ({hacek over (v)}−½I))/(2C ({hacek over (v)}−½I))= 3/30 is the relative frequency that v has been learned with label 1; and 1− 3/30= 27/30 is the relative frequency that v has been learned with label 0.

5.4 Masking Factors for Maximal Generalization

Let a vector v_(τ) that deviates, due to corruption, distortion or occlusion, from each of the vectors v_(s) that have been learned by the synapses on an artificial neuronal encoder be presented to the neuronal encoder. The neuronal encoder and its synapses are said to have a maximal generalization capability in their retrieval of information, if they are able to automatically find the largest subvector of v_(τ) that matches at least one subvector among the vectors v, stored in the synapses and enable post-synaptic neurons to generate a subjective probability distribution of the label of the largest subvector. This maximal capability is achieved by the use of a masking matrix described in this Subsection. A biological interpretation of such a matrix is given at the end of this Subsection.

The following are recursive formulas for expanding bipolar binary vectors a=[a₁ a₂ . . . a_(m)]′ into an orthogonal expansion:

â(1)=[1a ₁]′

â(1, . . . j+1)=[â′(1, . . . , j) a _(j+1) â′(1, . . . , j)]′ for j=1, . . . , m−1

â=â(1, . . . , m)  (28)

â is called the orthogonal expansion of a. For example, if a=[a₁ a₂ a₃], then

â=[1a ₁ a ₂ a ₂ a ₁ a ₃ a ₃ a ₁ a ₃ a ₂ a ₃ a ₂ a ₁]

Let us denote the vector a=[a₁ a₂ . . . a_(m)]′ with its i₁-th i₂-th, . . . , and i_(j)-th components set equal to 0 by a (i₁ ⁻, i₂ ⁻, . . . , i_(j) ⁻), where 1≦i₁<i₂< . . . <i_(j)≦m, and the neuronal and orthogonal expansions of a (i₁ ⁻, i₂ ⁻, . . . , i_(j) ⁻) by {hacek over (a)} (i₁ ⁻, i₂ ⁻, . . . , i_(j) ⁻) and â (i₁ ⁻, i₂ ⁻, . . . , i_(j) ⁻), respectively. Denoting the m-dimensional vector [1 1 . . . 1]′ by I, the vector I with its i₁-th, i₂-th, . . . , and i_(j)-th components set equal to 0 is I (i₁ ⁻, i₂ ⁻, . . . , i_(j) ⁻) and the orthogonal expansion of I (i₁ ⁻, i₂ ⁻, . . . , i_(j) ⁻) is Î (i₁ ⁻, i₂ ⁻, . . . , i_(j) ⁻). For example, if I=[1 1 1]′, then

{circumflex over (I)}(1⁻)=[1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0]

{circumflex over (I)}(2⁻)=[1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0]

{circumflex over (I)}(3⁻)=[1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0]  (29)

Notice that for the vector a=[a₁ a₂ a₃]′,

{hacek over (a)}(1⁻)=[0 0 a ₂ 0 a ₃ 0 φ(a ₃ , a ₂) 0]=(diagÎ(1⁻)){hacek over (a)}

{hacek over (a)}(2⁻)=[0 a ₁ 0 0 a ₃ φ(a ₃ , a ₁) 0 0]=(diagÎ(2⁻)){hacek over (a)}

{hacek over (a)}(3⁻)=[0 a ₁ a ₂ φ(a ₂ , a ₁) 0 0 0 0]=(diagÎ(3⁻)){hacek over (a)}

In general, for the vector a=[a₁ a₂ . . . a_(m)]′,

{hacek over (a)}(i ₁ ⁻ ,i ₂ ⁻ , . . . , i _(j) ⁻)=(diagÎ(i ₁ ⁻ ,i ₂ ⁻ , . . . , i _(j) ⁻)){hacek over (a)}

Notice that diagÎ (i₁ ⁻, i₂ ⁻, . . . , i_(j) ⁻) eliminates components in {hacek over (a)} that involve a_(i) ₁ , a_(i) ₂ , . . . , a_(i) _(j) . Therefore, diagÎ (i₁ ⁻, i₂ ⁻, . . . , i_(j) ⁻) is called a masking matrix.

An important property of the masking matrix diagÎ (i₁ ⁻, i₂ ⁻, . . . , i_(j) ⁻) is the following: Assume that v_(s) and v_(τ) are binary vectors. If

$\begin{matrix} {{{\left( {{diag}\; {\hat{I}\left( {i_{1}^{-},i_{2}^{-},\ldots \mspace{14mu},i_{j}^{-}} \right)}} \right)\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{s} - {\frac{1}{2}I}} \right)} = {\left( {{diag}\; {\hat{I}\left( {i_{1}^{-},i_{2}^{-},\ldots \mspace{14mu},i_{j}^{-}} \right)}} \right)\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau} - {\frac{1}{2}I}} \right)}}{then}} & \; \\ {{\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{s} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{s}\rangle}} \right)^{\prime}\left( {{diag}\; {\hat{I}\left( {i_{1}^{-},i_{2}^{-},\ldots \mspace{14mu},i_{j}^{-}} \right)}} \right)\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau}\rangle}} \right)} - {2^{m - 2 - j}.{If}}} & (30) \\ {{{\left( {{diag}\; {\hat{I}\left( {i_{1}^{-},i_{2}^{-},\ldots \mspace{14mu},i_{j}^{-}} \right)}} \right)\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{s} - {\frac{1}{2}I}} \right)} \neq {\left( {{diag}\; {\hat{I}\left( {i_{1}^{-},i_{2}^{-},\ldots \mspace{14mu},i_{j}^{-}} \right)}} \right)\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau} - {\frac{1}{2}I}} \right)}}{then}} & \; \\ {{\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{s} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{s}\rangle}} \right)^{\prime}\left( {{diag}\; {\hat{I}\left( {i_{1}^{-},i_{2}^{-},\ldots \mspace{14mu},i_{j}^{-}} \right)}} \right)\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau}\rangle}} \right)} = 0} & (31) \end{matrix}$

Using this property, we combine all such masking matrices that set less than or equal to a selected positive integer J of components of v_(s) equal to zero into the following masking matrix

$\begin{matrix} {M = {I + {\sum\limits_{j = 1}^{J}{\sum\limits_{i_{j} = j}^{m}\mspace{14mu} {\ldots \mspace{14mu} {\sum\limits_{i_{2} = 2}^{i_{3} - 1}{\sum\limits_{i_{1} = 1}^{i_{2} - 1}{2^{{- \eta}\; j}2^{j}{diag}\; {\hat{I}\left( {i_{1}^{-},i_{2}^{-},\ldots \mspace{14mu},i_{j}^{-}} \right)}}}}}}}}} & (32) \end{matrix}$

where 2^(j) is used to compensate for the factor 2^(−j) in 2^(m−2−j) in the important property (30), and 2^(−ηj) is a weight selected to differentiate between different levels j of maskings. Note that the masking matrix M is a diagonal matrix, whose diagonal entries M_(jj) are called masking factors.

The formulas (24) and (25) together with M constitute the following decovariance rules:

d _(τ) =DM({hacek over (v)} _(τ) −

{hacek over (v)} _(τ)

)  (33)

c _(τ) =CM({hacek over (v)} _(τ) −

{hacek over (v)} _(τ)

)  (34)

which are equivalent to

d _(τkj) =D _(kj) M _(jj)({hacek over (v)} _(τj) −

{hacek over (v)} _(τj)

)=M _(jj) D _(kj)({hacek over (v)} _(τj) −

{hacek over (v)} _(τj)

)

c _(τj) =C _(j) M _(jj)({hacek over (v)} _(τj) −

{hacek over (v)} _(τj)

)=M _(jj) C _(j)({hacek over (v)} _(τj) −

{hacek over (v)} _(τj)

)

for k=1, . . . , R and j=1, . . . , 2^(m). c° 10 illustrates synapses and a masking factor retrieve information about the vector v, input to the neuronal encoder according to the above decovariance rules.

Note that for k=1, . . . , R, we have the following:

${{{If}\mspace{14mu} {C\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau}\rangle}} \right)}} \neq 0},{then}$ ${D_{k}\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau}\rangle}} \right)} \approx {D_{k}{M\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau}\rangle}} \right)}}$ ${C\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau}\rangle}} \right)} \approx {{CM}\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau}\rangle}} \right)}$ ${{{If}\mspace{14mu} {C\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau}\rangle}} \right)}} = 0},{{{but}\mspace{14mu} c{\sum\limits_{i_{1} = 1}^{m}{\left( {{diag}\; {\hat{I}\left( i_{1}^{-} \right)}} \right)\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau}\rangle}} \right)}}} \neq 0},{then}$ ${D_{k}{\sum\limits_{i_{1} = 1}^{m}{\left( {{diag}\; {\hat{I}\left( i_{1}^{-} \right)}} \right)\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau}\rangle}} \right)}}} \approx {D_{k}{M\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau}\rangle}} \right)}}$ ${C{\sum\limits_{i_{1} = 1}^{m}{\left( {{diag}\; {\hat{I}\left( i_{1}^{-} \right)}} \right)\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau}\rangle}} \right)}}} \approx {{CM}\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau}\rangle}} \right)}$ ${{{If}\mspace{14mu} C\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau}\rangle}} \right)} = 0},{{C{\sum\limits_{i_{1} = 1}^{m}{\left( {{diag}\; {\hat{I}\left( i_{1}^{-} \right)}} \right)\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau}\rangle}} \right)}}} = 0},{{{but}\mspace{14mu} C{\sum\limits_{i_{2} = 2}^{m}{\sum\limits_{i_{1} = 1}^{i_{2} - 1}{\left( {{diag}\; {\hat{I}\left( {i_{1}^{-},i_{2}^{-}} \right)}} \right)\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau}\rangle}} \right)}}}} \neq 0},{then}$ ${D_{k}{\sum\limits_{i_{2} = 2}^{m}{\sum\limits_{i_{1} = 1}^{i_{2} - 1}{\left( {{diag}\; {\hat{I}\left( {i_{1}^{-},i_{2}^{-}} \right)}} \right)\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau}\rangle}} \right)}}}} \approx {D_{k}{M\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau}\rangle}} \right)}C{\sum\limits_{i_{2} = 2}^{m}{\sum\limits_{i_{1} = 1}^{i_{2} - 1}{\left( {{diag}\; {\hat{I}\left( {i_{1}^{-},i_{2}^{-}} \right)}} \right)\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau}\rangle}} \right)}}}} \approx {{CM}\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau}\rangle}} \right)}$

Continuing in this manner, it is seen that D_(k)M ({hacek over (v)}_(τ)−

{hacek over (v)}_(τ)

) and CM ({hacek over (v)}_(τ)−

{hacek over (v)}_(τ)

) always use the greatest number of uncorrupted, undistorted or unoccluded components of v_(τ) in estimating d_(τk), c_(τ), and a_(τk). The vector a_(τj)/c_(τ) is now an estimate of the subjective conditional subjective probability distribution of r_(τ) given v_(τ), using the greatest number of uncorrupted, undistorted or unoccluded components of v_(τ).

If some terms in (32) are missing, the generalization effect of M degrades only gracefully. The example weight 2^(−5j) in (32) is used to illustrate M generalizing maximally in EXAMPLE 2c. The weight is believed to be 2^(−j) in biological neural networks for a reason to be discussed. J in (32) is believed to vary from brain region to brain region. The range of J can be found by biological experiments.

EXAMPLE 2c

Let the code covariance matrices, D and C, be those obtained in EXAMPLE 2a and EXAMPLE 2b. Using (29), we construct the masking matrix by the formula (32) for J=1,

$\begin{matrix} \begin{matrix} {M = {I + {2^{- 5}2\; {{diag}\left( {{\hat{I}\left( 1^{-} \right)} + {\hat{I}\left( 2^{-} \right)} + {\hat{I}\left( 3^{-} \right)}} \right)}}}} \\ {= {I + {2^{- 4}{{diag}\begin{bmatrix} 3 & 2 & 2 & 1 & 2 & 1 & 1 & 0 \end{bmatrix}}}}} \end{matrix} & (35) \end{matrix}$

Recall that with the masking matrix M, we use d_(τj)=D_(τj)M ({hacek over (v)}_(τ)−

{hacek over (v)}_(τ)

) and c_(τ)=C_(τ)M ({hacek over (v)}_(τ)−

{hacek over (v)}_(τ)

) in general, where D_(j) denotes the jth row of D. If c_(τ)≠0, the subjective probability p_(τj)=(d_(τj)/c_(τ)+1)/2. The masking matrix M for this example is shown in FIG. 11.

Assume that {hacek over (v)}₁ is presented to the synapses containing the code covariance matrices through M. By matrix multiplication,

DM({hacek over (v)} ₁ −

{hacek over (v)} ₁

)=−1+2⁻⁴(−½)=−1.0312

CM({hacek over (v)} ₁ −

{hacek over (v)} ₁

)=1+2⁻⁴(5/2)=1.1563

The subjective probability the label of v₄ is 1 is (DM ({hacek over (v)}₁−

{hacek over (v)}₁

)/(CM ({hacek over (v)}₁−

{hacek over (v)}₁

))+1)/2=0.054, and the subjective probability that the label of v₄ is 0 is 0.946. Note that v₁ with a label of 0 has been learned. The subjective probability that the label of v₄ is 0 should be 1. The use of M causes a very small amount of error to the subjective probability, which can be controlled by changing the weight, 2⁻⁵.

The neuronal codes of the three vertices, v₄, v₅ and v₆, of the cube in FIG. 9, which are not included in the supervised learning data, are listed as follows:

φ φ φ φ {hacek over (v)}′_(t) 0 v_(t1) v_(t2) (v_(t2), v_(t1)) v_(t3) (v_(t3), v_(t1)) (v_(t3), v_(t2)) (v_(t3), v_(t2), v_(t1)) {hacek over (v)}′₄ 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 {hacek over (v)}′₅ 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 {hacek over (v)}′₆ 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0

Simple matrix-vector multiplication yields D ({hacek over (v)}_(t)−

{hacek over (v)}_(t)

)=0 and C ({hacek over (v)}_(t)−

{hacek over (v)}_(t)

)=0 for t=4, 5, 6. Hence no information is provided on v_(t) by D ({hacek over (v)}_(t)−

{hacek over (v)}_(t)

) and C ({hacek over (v)}_(t)−

{hacek over (v)}_(t)

) for t=4, 5, 6. This shows that if v_(t) has not been learned, then generalization is necessary to get information on it from the code covariance matrices.

Assume that {hacek over (v)}₄ is presented to the synapses containing the code covariance matrices. By matrix multiplication,

DM({hacek over (v)} ₄ −

{hacek over (v)} ₄

)=0+2⁻¹⁰(9+2+6−3−2+1−1)=2⁻¹⁰(12)

CM({hacek over (v)} ₄ −

{hacek over (v)} ₄

)=0+2⁻¹⁰(15−2+2−1+2−1−3)=2⁻¹⁰(12)

The subjective probability the label of v₄ is 1 is (DM ({hacek over (v)}₄−

{hacek over (v)}₄

)/(CM ({hacek over (v)}₄−

{hacek over (v)}₄

))+1)/2=1. From FIG. 9, we see that all the three vertices neighboring v₄ have been learned and have a label of 1. It is a good generalization that a label of 1 is assigned to v₄.

Assume that {hacek over (v)}₆ is presented to the code covariance matrices. By matrix multiplication,

DM({hacek over (v)} ₆ −

{hacek over (v)} ₆

)=0+2⁻⁷(9+2−6+3+2−1−1)=2⁻⁷(8)  (36)

CM({hacek over (v)} ₆ −

{hacek over (v)} ₆

)=0+2⁻⁷(15−2−2+1−2+1−3)=2⁻⁷(8)  (37)

The subjective probability the label of v₆ is 1 is (DM ({hacek over (v)}₆−

{hacek over (v)}₆

)/(CM ({hacek over (v)}₆−

{hacek over (v)}₆

))+1)/2=1. From FIG. 9, we see that only two vertices neighboring v₄ have been learned, and they both have a label of 1. It is a good generalization that a label of 1 is assigned to v₆.

Assume that {hacek over (v)}₅ is presented to the synapses containing the code covariance matrices. By matrix multiplication,

DM({hacek over (v)} ₅ −

{hacek over (v)} ₅

)=0+2⁻⁷(9−2−6−3+2+1−1)=2⁻⁷(0)

CM({hacek over (v)} ₅ −

{hacek over (v)} ₅

)=0+2⁻⁷(15+2−2−1−2−1−3)=2⁻⁷(8)

The subjective probability the label of v₅ is 1 is (DM ({hacek over (v)}₅−

{hacek over (v)}₅

)/(CM ({hacek over (v)}₅−

{hacek over (v)}₅

))+1)/2=½. From FIG. 9, we see that only two vertices neighboring v₄ have been learned, and one of them has a label of 1, and the other has a label of 0. No generalization is possible. A label of 1 is assigned to v₆ with a subjective probability of ½ and that a label of 0 is assigned to v₆ with equal subjective probability.

The above example shows that the weight 2^(−5j) in (32) is more than adequate to differentiate between different levels j of maskings for a neuronal encoder with only 3 inputs. The greater the number m of inputs to a neuronal encoder, the less two adjacent levels, j and j+1, of maskings need to be differentiated. For example, if the number m of components in the input vector is 12, any 11 of the 12 components should be almost as good as the 12 in determining the label of the input vector. A reduction by 50% of emphasis on the subvector is usually adequate.

Therefore, if m is 12 or larger, the weight 2^(−ηj) in (32) can be set equal to 2^(−j) so that the reduction of emphasis by 50% from level j+1 and j is adequate. In this case, the masking matrix M is a mathematical idealization and organization of a large number of neuronal trees with nested and overlapped inputs. The following example illustrates this biological interpretation of the masking matrix M with the weight being 2^(−j) in (32).

EXAMPLE 3

Using (29), we construct the masking matrix by the formula (32) for J=1,

$\begin{matrix} \begin{matrix} {M = {I + {2^{- 1}2\; {{diag}\left( {{\hat{I}\left( 1^{-} \right)} + {\hat{I}\left( 2^{-} \right)} + {\hat{I}\left( 3^{-} \right)}} \right)}}}} \\ {= {I + {{diag}\; {\hat{I}\left( 1^{-} \right)}} + {{diag}\; {\hat{I}\left( 2^{-} \right)}} + {{diag}\; {\hat{I}\left( 3^{-} \right)}}}} \end{matrix} & (38) \end{matrix}$

In the product

M{hacek over (v)} _(τ) ={hacek over (v)} _(τ)+(diagÎ(1⁻)){hacek over (v)} _(τ)+(diagÎ(2⁻)){hacek over (v)} _(τ)+(diagÎ(3⁻)){hacek over (v)} _(τ)

(diagÎ (k⁻)) {hacek over (v)}_(τ) eliminates all terms in {hacek over (v)}_(τ) that contain v_(τk) and can be viewed as the output vector of a model neuronal encoder for k=1, 2, 3. These model neuronal encoders are shown in FIG. 13. M{hacek over (v)}_(τ) can be viewed as the sum of the output vectors from four model neuronal encoders with nested and overlapped input vectors, v_(τ)=[v_(τ1) v_(τ2) v_(τ3)]′, [v_(τ2) v_(τ3)]′, [v_(τ1) v_(τ3)]′, and [v_(τ1) v_(τ2)]′.

The difference between FIGS. 5 a-7 a and FIGS. 5 b-7 b is that the former do not contain the masking matrix, but the latter do. The above biological interpretation of the masking matrix explains said difference. In other words, while biologically there is no masking factor being multiplied to a synapse output as shown in FIG. 5 a-7 a, a large number of biological neuronal encoders with nested and overlapped inputs are mathematically idealized and organized to have the effect of the masking factor as shown in FIGS. 5 b-7 b.

5.5 Processing Units (PUs)

The LOM (low-order model) disclosed in the present invention disclosure is a network of processing units. A processing unit comprises model neuronal encoders, model synapses, masking matrices, a model nonspiking neuron and a number of model spiking neurons. Let us denote the vector input to the PU at time or numbering t, the number of model neuronal encoders in the PU and the number of model spiking neurons in the PU by v_(t), R and Ψ, respectively.

5.5.1 Multiple Model Neuronal Encoders and General Neuronal Codes

Recall that if v_(t)=[v_(t1) v_(t2) . . . v_(tN)], then the neuronal code {hacek over (v)}_(t) of v_(t) is 2^(N) dimensional. If there were only one neuronal encoder in a PU, there would be two difficulties. First, 2^(N) grows exponentially as N increases. Second, a large number of terms in the masking matrix M in (32) are required for masking even a small proportion J/N of the components of v_(t) if N is large. These difficulties motivated the use of Ψ model neuronal encoders.

Let v_(t) (ψ), ψ=1, . . . , Ψ, be subvectors of v_(t), where the components of v_(t) (ψ) are randomly selected from those of v_(t) such that the union of all the components of v_(t) (ψ), ψ=1, . . . , Ψ, is the set of components of v_(t). The subvectors v_(t) (ψ), ψ=1, . . . , Ψ, are encoded by the Ψ model neuronal encoders into neuronal codes {hacek over (v)}_(t) (ψ), ψ=1, . . . , Ψ. Their averages over a time window [t−q_(v)+1, t] of width q_(v) are denoted by

{hacek over (v)}_(t) (ψ)

, ψ=1, . . . , Ψ. We assemble these vectors into

{hacek over (v)} _(t) =[{hacek over (v)} _(t)′(1){hacek over (v)} _(t)′(2) . . . {hacek over (v)} _(t)′(Ψ)]′  (39)

{hacek over (v)} _(t)

=[

{hacek over (v)} _(t)′(1)

{hacek over (v)} _(t)′(2)

. . .

{hacek over (v)} _(t)′(Ψ)

]′  (40)

Notice that {hacek over (v)}_(t) here is not the neuronal code of v_(t) defined in (5), but consists of the neuronal codes of the Ψ subvectors. {hacek over (v)}_(t) and

{hacek over (v)}_(t)

above are called a general neuronal code of v_(t) and an average general neuronal code respectively. This dual use of the symbol {hacek over (v)}_(t) is not expected to cause confusion. Note that the vectors v_(t) (ψ), ψ=1, . . . , Ψ, may have common components and different dimensionalities, dim v_(t) (ψ), ψ=1, . . . , Ψ, but every component of v_(t) is included in at least one v_(t) (ψ). Equally importantly, the components of v_(t) (ψ) are selected at random from those of the vector v_(t) input to the PU. The difference {hacek over (v)}_(t)−

{hacek over (v)}_(t)

between the general neuronal code of v_(t) and the average general neuronal code is called the general code deviation vector.

5.5.2 General Code Covariance Matrix, General Code Deviation Accumulation Vector and General Masking Matrix

For the neuronal codes, {hacek over (v)}_(t) (ψ), ψ=1, . . . , Ψ, let the corresponding code covariance matrices be denoted by D (ψ), ψ=1, . . . , Ψ; and let the corresponding code deviation accumulation vectors be denoted by C (ψ), ψ=1, . . . , Ψ; and the corresponding masking matrices be denoted by M (ψ), ψ=1, . . . , Ψ. We assemble these matrices into

D=[D(1)D(2) . . . D(Ψ)]  (41)

C=[C(1)C(2) . . . C(Ψ)]  (42)

M=diag[M(1)M(2) . . . M(Ψ)]  (43)

Here D and C are respectively called general code covariance matrix and general code deviation accumulation vector, and M is called the general masking matrix for the Ψ neuronal encoders. Note that D, C and M above are not those defined for 2^(dim v) ^(t) -dimensional neuronal codes of the vector v_(t) input to the PU. The dual use of the symbols here is not expected to cause confusion either. The general masking matrix M is a diagonal matrix, whose diagonal entries are called masking factors.

D, C and M above are R×Σ_(ψ=1) ^(Ψ) 2^(dim v) ^(t) ^((ψ)), 1×Σ_(ψ=1) ^(Ψ) 2^(dim v) ^(t) ^((ψ)), and Σ_(ψ=1) ^(Ψ) 2^(dim v) ^(t) ^((ψ))×Σ_(ψ=1) ^(Ψ) 2^(dim v) ^(t) ^((ψ)) matrices, respectively. Note that by choosing dim v_(t) (ψ) smaller than dim v_(t), 2^(dim v) ^(t) ^((ψ)) is much smaller than 2^(dim v) ^(t) , and the dimensionalities of the general code covariance matrix D, general code deviation accumulation vector C, and the general masking matrix M are much smaller than those obtained from using 2^(dim v) ^(t) -dimensional neuronal codes of the vector v_(t) input to the PU. Therefore, the two aforementioned difficulties with a single neuronal encoder with a 2^(dim v) ^(t) -dimensional output vector are alleviated by the use of multiple neuronal encoders in a PU. A third advantage of multiple neuronal encoders in a PU is the enhancement of generalization capability: If the neuronal code from one neuronal encoder fails to retrieve any useful information from a general code covariance matrix and a code deviation accumulation matrix, other neuronal codes from other neuronal encoders may still retrieve enough information for detecting and recognizing the vector v_(t) input to the PU.

An example model spiking neuron with its masking matrix M, synapses, and two neuronal encoders for unsupervised covariance learning in a PU is shown in FIG. 15. The two neuronal encoders input subvectors, v_(τ) (1) and v_(τ) (2), of the vector v_(τ) input to the PU.

We stress that in describing a PU, the symbols, v_(t), {hacek over (v)}_(t), D, C, and M, denote the vector input to the PU, the general neuronal code, the general code covariance matrix, the general code deviation accumulation vector, and the general masking matrix respectively, unless indicated otherwise.

5.5.3 Processing Neuronal Codes

By the information retrieval formula, (33) and (34), applied to each of the Ψ neuronal encoder, its synapses, the masking matrices M (ψ), and the model spiking and nonspikeing neurons; upon the arrival of {hacek over (v)}_(τ) the following products, d_(τ) (ψ) and c_(τ) (ψ), ψ=1, . . . , Ψ, are obtained for ψ=1, . . . , Ψ:

d _(τ)(ψ)=D(ψ)M(ψ)({hacek over (v)} _(τ)(ψ)−

{hacek over (v)} _(τ)(ψ)

)  (44)

c _(τ)(ψ)=C(ψ)M(ψ)({hacek over (v)} _(τ)(ψ)−

{hacek over (v)} _(τ)(ψ)

)  (45)

which are a vector with R components and a scalar, respectively. Redefine the symbols d_(τ), c_(τ) and a_(τ) by

$\begin{matrix} {d_{\tau} = {{{DM}\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau}\rangle}} \right)} = {\sum\limits_{\psi = 1}^{\Psi}{d_{\tau}(\psi)}}}} & (46) \\ {c_{\tau} = {{{CM}\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau}\rangle}} \right)} = {\sum\limits_{\psi = 1}^{\Psi}{c_{\tau}(\psi)}}}} & (47) \\ {a_{\tau} - {\left( {d_{\tau} + {c_{\tau}I}} \right)/2}} & (48) \\ {I = \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 1 & \ldots & 1 \end{bmatrix}^{\prime}} & (49) \end{matrix}$

Let us reset the subscripts of the Σ_(ψ=1) ^(Ψ) 2^(dim {hacek over (v)}) ^(τ) ^((ψ)) components {hacek over (v)}_(τ) in 39 from 1 to Σ_(ψ=1) ^(Ψ) 2^(dim {hacek over (v)}) ^(τ) ^((ψ)). We do the same to those of the diagonal entries of the general masking matrix M in 43, those of the general code deviation accumulation (row) vector C in 42, and those of each row of the general code covariance matrix D in 41. Then the two equations, (46) and (47), are respectively equivalent to

d _(τkj) =D _(kj) M _(jj)({hacek over (v)} _(τj) −

{hacek over (v)} _(τj)

)  (50)

c _(τj) =C _(j) M _(jj)({hacek over (v)} _(τj) −

{hacek over (v)} _(τj)

)  (51)

for k=1, . . . , R and j=1, . . . , Σ_(ψ=1) ^(Ψ) 2^(dim {hacek over (v)}) ^(τ) _((ψ)), where M_(jj), d_(τkj), C_(j), and {hacek over (v)}_(τj) are the jth diagonal entry of the general masking matrix M, the (k, j)th entry of the general code covariance matrix D, the jth entry of the general code deviation accumulation vector C, and the jth entry of the general neuronal code {hacek over (v)}_(τ) at time or numbering τ, respectively. Using the matrix notation [d_(τkj)], which denotes a matrix with the (k, j)th entry being d_(τkj) and the vector notation [c_(τj)], which denotes a row vector with the jth entry being c_(τj), the above equations (50) and (51) can be expressed as follows:

[d _(τkj) ]=[M _(jj) D _(kj)({hacek over (v)} _(τj) −

{hacek over (v)} _(τj)

)]  (52)

[c _(τj) ]=[M _(jj) C _(j)({hacek over (v)} _(τj) −

{hacek over (v)} _(τj)

)]  (53)

where D_(kj) ({hacek over (v)}_(τj)−

{hacek over (v)}_(τj)

) and C_(j) ({hacek over (v)}_(τj)−

{hacek over (v)}_(τj)

) can be looked upon as the outputs of the synapses with weights D_(kj) and C_(j) respectively after performing the multiplications involved in response to the input {hacek over (v)}_(τj)−

{hacek over (v)}_(τj)

; and M_(jj) are called masking factors. The masking factor M_(jj) is multiplied to the output D_(kj) ({hacek over (v)}_(τj)−

{hacek over (v)}_(τj)

) of synapse j preceding spiking neuron k and to the output C_(j) ({hacek over (v)}_(τj)−

{hacek over (v)}_(τj)

) of synapse j preceding nonspiking neuron.

Denoting (c_(τ) (ψ)+d_(τj) (ψ))/2 by a_(τj) (ψ), For each ψ=1, . . . , Ψ, the ratio a_(τj) (ψ)/c_(τ) (ψ)=(d_(τj) (ψ)/c_(τ) (ψ)+1)/2 is an estimate of the subjective conditional probability that the jth component r_(τj) (ψ) of the label r_(τ) (ψ) of v_(t) (ψ) is equal to 1 given v_(t) (ψ). If v_(t) (ψ), ψ=1, . . . , Ψ, share the same label r_(τ), that is the label of v_(t) (i.e., r_(τ) (ψ)=r_(τ) for ψ=1, . . . , Ψ); then the best estimate of the subjective conditional probability that the jth component r_(τj) of label r_(τ) of v_(t) is equal to 1 given v_(t) (ψ), ψ=1, . . . , Ψ, is

${\left( {\sum\limits_{\psi = 1}^{\Psi}{a_{\tau \; j}(\psi)}} \right)/\left( {\sum\limits_{\psi = 1}^{\Psi}{c_{\tau}(\psi)}} \right)} = {\left( {{\left( {\sum\limits_{\psi = 1}^{\Psi}{d_{\tau \; j}(\psi)}} \right)/\left( {\sum\limits_{\psi = 1}^{\Psi}{c_{\tau}(\psi)}} \right)} + 1} \right)/2}$

for j=1, . . . , R, or equivalently,

a _(τ) /c _(τ)=(d _(τ) /c _(τ) +I)/2

which is a representation of a subjective probability distribution denoted by p_(τ). How pseudo-random binary numbers are generated in accordance with p_(τ) is described in Subsubsection 5.5.5.

Note that {hacek over (v)}_(τ),

{hacek over (v)}_(τ)

, D, C and M, in describing a PU (and hence in this subsubsection) are the general neuronal code, the general code covariance matrix, the general code deviation accumulation vector, and the general masking matrix defined in (39), (40), (41), (42), and (43), respectively. Note also that a_(τ), c_(τ) and d_(τ) in describing a PU (and hence in this subsubsection) are computed using the general versions of {hacek over (v)}_(τ),

{hacek over (v)}_(τ)

, D, C and M, unless indicated otherwise. In describing a PU, the symbol v_(t) remains to denote the vector input to the PU.

5.5.4 Model Nonspiking Neurons

A model nonspiking neuron in a PU receives signals from dim {hacek over (v)}_(τ)=Σ_(ψ=1) ^(Ψ) 2^(dim v) ^(t) ^((ψ)) synapses connected to the Ψ neuronal encoders in the PU. The strengths of these synapses form the code deviation accumulation vector C. Receiving C_(j) (ψ) M_(jj) (ψ) ({hacek over (v)}_(τ) (ψ)−

{hacek over (v)}_(τ) (ψ)

)_(j), j=1, 2, . . . , 2^(dim v) ^(t) ^((ψ)), ψ=1, 2, . . . , Ψ, the model nonspiking neuron performs addition of them. The output of the model nonspiking neuron is

$\begin{matrix} \begin{matrix} {c_{\tau} = {\sum\limits_{\psi = 1}^{\Psi}{{C(\psi)}{M(\psi)}\left( {{{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau}(\psi)} - {\langle{{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau}(\psi)}\rangle}} \right)}}} \\ {= {{CM}\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau}\rangle}} \right)}} \end{matrix} & (54) \end{matrix}$

which is an estimate of the total number of times v_(τ) or its variants have been encoded and stored in C with effects of the forgetting factor, normalizing constant, and input corruption, distortion and occlusion included. c is a graded signal transmitted to the neighboring R model spiking neurons in the same PU (processing unit).

An artificial nonspiking neuron is shown in FIG. 19. It evaluates the sum of its inputs, c_(τj)=M_(jj)C_(j) ({hacek over (v)}_(τj)−

{hacek over (v)}_(τj)

), j=1, . . . , Σ_(ψ=1) ^(Ψ) 2^(dim v) ^(t) ^((ψ)).

5.5.5 Model Spiking Neurons

Each of the R model spiking neurons in the PU receives signals from Σ_(ψ=1) ^(Ψ) 2^(dim v) ^(t) ^((ψ)) synapses connected to the neuronal encoders in the PU. The entries of the k-th row D_(k) of D are the strengths of these synapses for model spiking neuron j for j=1, . . . , R. In response to v_(τ), model spiking neuron k performs addition of D_(kj) (ψ) M_(jj) (ψ) ({hacek over (v)}_(τ) (ψ)−

{hacek over (v)}_(τ) (ψ)

)_(j), j=1, 2, . . . , 2^(dim v) ^(t) ^((ψ)), ψ=1, 2, . . . , Ψ, from the Σ_(ψ=1) ^(Ψ) 2^(dim v) ^(t) ^((ψ)) synapses. The output of model spiking neuron k is

$\begin{matrix} \begin{matrix} {d_{\tau \; k} = {\sum\limits_{\psi = 1}^{\Psi}{{D_{k}(\psi)}{M(\psi)}\left( {{{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau}(\psi)} - {\langle{{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau}(\psi)}\rangle}} \right)}}} \\ {= {D_{k}{M\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau}\rangle}} \right)}}} \end{matrix} & (55) \end{matrix}$

which is an estimate of the total number of times v_(τ) and its variants have been encoded and stored in D with the kth component r_(τk) of r_(τ) being +1 minus the total number of times v_(τ) and its variants have been encoded and stored in D with the kth component r_(τj) being −1. Included in this estimate are the effects of the forgetting factor, normalizing constant, and input corruption, distortion and occlusion.

Therefore, (c_(τ)+d_(τk))/2 is an estimate of the total number of times v_(τ) and its variants have been encoded and stored in C with the kth component r_(τk) of r_(τ) being 1. Consequently, (d_(τk)/c_(τ)+1)/2 is an estimate p_(τk) of the subjective probability that r_(τk) is equal to 1 given v_(t). Model spiking neuron k then uses a pseudo-random number generator to generate a spike (i.e., 1) with probability p_(τk) or no spike (i.e., 0) with probability 1−p_(τk). This 1 or 0 is the output u_(τk)=v {p_(τk)} of model spiking neuron k at time or numbering τ. u_(τk) is thus a point estimate of the k-th component r_(τk) of the label r_(τ) of v_(τ).

Note that the vector

p _(τ) =[p _(τ1) p _(τ2) . . . p _(τR)]′

is a representation of a subjective probability distribution of the label r_(τ). Note also that the outputs of the R model spiking neurons in response to v_(τ) form a binary vector u_(τ)=v {p_(τk)}, which is a point estimate of the label r_(τ) of v_(τ).

Artificial spiking neuron k in the PU is shown in FIG. 23. It inputs d_(τkj)=D_(kj) (ψ) M_(jj) (ψ). ({hacek over (v)}_(τ) (ψ)−

{hacek over (v)}_(τ) (ψ)

)_(j), j=1, . . . , Σ_(ψ=1) ^(Ψ) 2^(dim v) ^(τ) ^((ψ)), and c_(τ); and evaluates the sum Σ_(j) d_(τkj) of d_(τkj), j=1, . . . , Σ_(ψ=1) ^(Ψ) 2^(dim v) ^(τ) ^((ψ)). If c_(τ)=0, the artificial spiking neuron k then sets p_(τk)=½. If c_(τ)≠0, the artificial spiking neuron k then sets p_(τk)=((Σ_(j) d_(τkj))/c_(τ)+1)/2. The artificial spiking neuron generates a pseudo-random number v {p_(τk)} as follows: v {p_(τk)}=1 with probability p_(τk) and v {p_(τk)}=0 with probability 1−p_(τk). An artificial spiking neuron is shown in FIG. 20.

Note that the PU has Σ_(ψ=1) ^(Ψ) 2^(dim v) ^(t) ^((ψ)) synapses for each of the R spiking neurons and has the same number of synapses for the nonspiking neuron. However, the R spiking neurons and the nonspiking neuron may have different numbers of synapses.

A flow chart of a PU without a learning mechanism is shown in FIG. 21. At time or numbering τ, the PU receives a (feature) vector v_(τ). The neuronal encoders in the PU encode v_(τ) into the general neuronal code {hacek over (v)}_(τ) by (39). The synapses and the masking matrices compute and output c_(τj)=C_(j)M_(jj) ({hacek over (v)}_(τj)−

{hacek over (v)}_(τj)

) and d_(τkj)=D_(kj)M_(jj) ({hacek over (v)}_(τj)−

{hacek over (v)}_(τj)

) for all k and j, or equivalently the vector [c_(τj)] and matrix [d_(τkj)], where C, D and M are those in (42), (41) and (43), respectively. The model nonspiking neuron sums up c_(τj) over all j to form

$c_{\tau} = {\sum\limits_{j}c_{\tau \; j}}$

in (47). Model spiking neuron k sums up d_(τkj) over all j to form

$d_{\tau \; k} = {\sum\limits_{j}{d_{\tau \; {kj}}.}}$

If c_(τ)=0, then the spiking neuron sets p_(τ)=½. Otherwise, for k=1, . . . , R, the spiking neuron computes the subjective probability distribution p_(τk)=(y_(τk)+1)/2, where y_(τk)=d_(τk)/c_(τ), and generates a pseudo-random number v {p_(τk)} in accordance with the subjective probability p_(τk): P (v {p_(τk)}=1)=p_(τk) and P (v {p_(τk)}=0)=1−p_(τk).

If the general code covariance matrix D in the PU in FIG. 21 has been learned in unsupervised learning by the unsupervised covariance rule and held fixed, the PU is called an unsupervised PU (UPU). If D in the PU in FIG. 21 has been learned in supervised learning by the supervised covariance rule and held fixed, the PU is called a supervised PU (SPU).

5.5.6 Unsupervised and Supervised Learning

The general code deviation accumulation vector C, whose components are stored in the artificial synapses with a feedforward connection to the artificial nonspiking neuron, is adjusted by the following unsupervised accumulation rule:

$\begin{matrix} \left. C\leftarrow{{\lambda \; C} + {\frac{\Lambda}{1}\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau}\rangle}} \right)^{\prime}}} \right. & (56) \end{matrix}$

where the general neuronal code {hacek over (v)}_(τ) and its average over time

{hacek over (v)}_(τ)

are defined in (39), and (40). Note that (56) is equivalent to:

$\left. {C(\psi)}\leftarrow{{C(\psi)} + {\frac{\Lambda}{2}\left( {{{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau}(\psi)} - {\langle{{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau}(\psi)}\rangle}} \right)^{\prime}}} \right.$

for ψ=1, . . . , Ψ.

In unsupervised learning by the PU, the general code covariance matrix D, whose entries are stored in the artificial synapses with a feedforward connection to the R artificial spiking neurons, is adjusted by the following unsupervised covariance rule:

D←λD+Λ(v{p _(τ) }−

v{p _(τ)}

)({hacek over (v)} _(τ) −

{hacek over (v)} _(τ)

)′  (57)

where the general neuronal code {hacek over (v)}_(τ) and its average over time

{hacek over (v)}_(τ)

are defined in (39), and (40), and v {p_(τ)} is the output vector u_(τ) of the PU. Note that (57) is equivalent to:

D(ψ)←λD(ψ)+Λ(u _(τ) −

u _(τ)

)({hacek over (v)} _(τ)(ψ)−

{hacek over (v)} _(τ)(ψ)

)′

for ψ=1, . . . , Ψ, where u_(τ)=v {p_(τ)}.

In supervised learning by the PU, the general code covariance matrix D, whose entries are stored in the artificial synapses with a feedforward connection to the R artificial spiking neurons, is adjusted by the following supervised covariance rule:

D←λD+Λ(r _(τ)−½)({hacek over (v)} _(τ) −

{hacek over (v)} _(τ)

)′  (58)

where the general neuronal code {hacek over (v)}_(τ) and its average over time

{hacek over (v)}_(τ)

are defined in (39), and (40), and r_(τ) is the label of v_(τ) (or the measurements in the receptive field of the PU) that is provided from outside of the PU. The provided label r_(τ) is an R-dimensional binary vector. Note that (58) is equivalent to:

D(ψ)←λD(ψ)+Λ(r _(τ)−½)({hacek over (v)} _(τ)(ψ)−

{hacek over (v)} _(τ)(ψ)

)′

for ψ=1, . . . , Ψ.

The adjusted C and D are delayed for one unit of time or one numbering before being stored in the model synapses.

FIG. 22 illustrates a PU with an unsupervised learning mechanism to learn the general code covariance matrix D by the unsupervised covariance rule and an unsupervised learning mechanism to learn the general code deviation accumulation vector C by the unsupervised accumulation rule. The adjusted C and D are delayed for one unit of time or one numbering before being stored in the model synapses. The PU in FIG. 22 is called an unsupervised PU (UPU).

FIG. 23 illustrates a PU with a supervised learning mechanism to learn the general code covariance matrix D by the supervised covariance rule and an unsupervised learning mechanism to learn the general code deviation accumulation vector C by the unsupervised accumulation rule. The adjusted C and D are delayed for one unit of time or one numbering before being stored in the model synapse. The PU in FIG. 23 is called a supervised PU (SPU).

A network of at least one PU is called a low-order model (LOM) of biological neural networks. The vector v_(t) input to a PU in a layer contains not only feedforwarded components from outputs of model spiking neurons in the lower layers but also feedbacked components from outputs of model spiking neurons in the same or higher layers. Feedbacked components are delayed for at least one unit of time to ensure stability. Feedforwarded components may come from more than one layer preceding the layer in which the PU belongs to.

5.5.7 Creating a Vocabulary by Unsupervised Covariance Learning

Pseudo-random binary digit generation performed by the R model spiking neurons in a PU (processing unit) is indispensable in making the unsupervised covariance rule work for the PU. Let us now see how a “vocabulary” is created by unsupervised covariance rule for the PU: If a feature subvector v_(τ) or a slightly different version of it has not been learned by the PU, and CM ({hacek over (v)}_(τ)−

{hacek over (v)}_(τ)

)=0; then d_(τ)/c_(τ) is set equal to 0 and p_(τ)=(½)I, where I=[1 1 . . . 1]′. The R model spiking neurons use this subjective probability vector to generate a purely random label r_(τ). Once this r_(τ) and the output vector {hacek over (v)}_(τ) have been learned and stored in C and D, if v_(τ) is input to the PU for a second time, then u_(τ)=r_(τ) with probability 1, and one more copy of the pair (u_(τ), r_(τ)) is included in C and D.

If an input vector v_(τ) or a slightly different version of it has been learned by a PU with different labels for different numbers of times, then y_(τ)=d_(τk)/c_(τ)Ω0 and p_(τ)≠(½)I. Since v_(τ) may contain different parts from different causes and are assigned different labels in different rounds of unsupervised learning, p_(τ) may not be a binary vector. For example, assume that two labels, r_(τ) ¹ and r_(τ) ² of the same input vector v_(τ) have been learned with relative frequencies, 0.7 and 0.3, respectively. Then in response to v_(τ), each component of u_(τ) that is output from the PU is equal to r_(τ) ¹ with probability 0.7 and is equal to r_(τ) ² with probability with probability 0.3. Since these two labels may have common components, the point estimate of the label resembles r_(τ) ¹ with a probability of greater than 70% and resembles r_(τ) ² with a probability of greater than 30%.

5.6 Controlling Cluster Sizes

The set of vectors that, as input vectors to a PU, will retrieve (or generate) the same label from the PU is called a cluster. The length of the time interval over which the time average

u_(t)

is taken of the PU's output vector u_(t)=v {p_(t)} can be selected to control the cluster sizes.

EXAMPLE 4

The Gray codes of two adjacent integers differ by one component. For example, the Gray codes of the integers, 0 to 15, are, respectively, 0000, 0001, 0011, 0010, 0110, 0111, 0101, 0100, 1100, 1101, 1111, 1110, 1010, 1011, 1001, 1000. Let v_(t), t=1, 2, . . . , 16, be these 16 codes in the same order. For example, v₁=[0 0 0 0]′, v₂=[0 0 0 1]′ and so on. Repeating the 16 codes, an infinite sequence of vectors x_(t), t=1, 2, . . . , is available for learning. Let us use a PU with 10 model spiking neurons and 1 model nonspiking neuron to learn v_(t), t=1, 2, . . . , 16, in the given order without a supervisor. Assume that Ψ=J=1 in (39) and (32) and that λ=Λ=1 in (12) and (21).

Because J=1 in M, an unsupervised learning rule generalizes, if necessary, on three binary digits of each v_(t). Since two consecutive codes differ by only one bit, the unsupervised correlation rule in THPAM (James Ting-Ho Lo, Functional Model of Biological Neural Networks, Cognitive Neurodynamics, Vol. 4, Issue 4, pp. 295-313, November 2010) learns all the 16 codes (i.e., v_(t)) with one single label and thus puts them in one single cluster. Note that components 0 in v_(t) are replaced with −1 before the unsupervised correlation rule in THPAM can be applied.

Let us now use the unsupervised covariance rule to learn the same sequence of codes v_(t). To initiate the learning, we set

v {p_(t)}

=I/2 for t=1, 0, −1, −2, . . . , −∞ and set C=0 and D=0 at t=0. For simplification, we assume

{hacek over (v)}_(t)

=I/2 for all t. Note that the time averages

v {p_(t)}

and

{hacek over (v)}_(t)

may be taken over different time lengths.

EXAMPLE 4a

Assume that the time average

v {p}

is taken over 100,000 time units, namely

v {p_(t)}

=Σ_(τ=−100,000+t+1)v {p_(τ)}/100,000. Under this assumption,

v {p_(t)}

is virtually ½ for t=1, 2, . . . , 16. For notational simplicity, we take

v {p_(t)}

to be I/2 for t=1, 2, . . . , 16 in the following.

Retrieval at t=1: c₁=0, d₁=0, p₁=I/2 and v {p₁} is purely random (i.e., v {p_(1i)}=1 with probability ½ for i=1, . . . , 10). Learning at t=1: C=½ ({hacek over (v)}₁−I/2)′ and D=(v {p₁}−I/2) ({hacek over (v)}₁−I/2)′. Note that v {p₁} is a binary vector. Retrieval at t=2: c₂=1, d₂=2(v {p₁}−I/2), p₂=v {p₁}, and v {p₂}=v {p₁}, because v {p₁} is a binary vector. v₂ is assigned the same label v {p₁} as v₁, and v₁ and v₂ are put in the same cluster. Learning at t=2: C=½ Σ_(t=1) ² ({hacek over (v)}_(t)−I/2)′ and D=Σ_(t=1) ² (v {p_(t)}−I/2) ({hacek over (v)}_(t)−I/2)′.

Retrieval at t=3: c₃=1, d₃=2(v {p₂}−I/2) p₃=v {p₂}, v {p₃}=v {p₂}. v₃ is assigned the same label v {p₁} as v₂, and v₁, v₂ and v₃ are put in the same cluster.

Learning at t=3: C=½ Σ_(t=1) ³ ({hacek over (v)}_(t)−I/2)′ and D=Σ_(t=1) ³ (v {p_(t)}−I/2)({hacek over (v)}_(t)−I/2)′ Retrieval at t=4: c₄=1, d₄=2(v {p₃}−I/2),p₄=v {p₃}, and v {p₄}=v {p₃}. v₄ is assigned the same label v {p₃} as v₃, and v₁, . . . , v₄ are put in the same cluster.

Continuing in this manner, all the 16 codes v_(t) are assigned the same label v {p₁} and thus put in the same cluster.

EXAMPLE 4b

Assume that the time average

v {p_(t)}

is taken over 1 time unit, namely

v {p_(t)}

=v {p_(t)}.

Retrieval at t=1: c₁=0, d₁=0, p₁=I/2 and v {p₁} is purely random (i.e., v {p_(1i)}=1 with probability ½ for i=1, . . . , 10). Learning at t=1: C=½ ({hacek over (v)}₁−I/2)′ and D=(v {p₁}−

v {p₁}

) ({hacek over (v)}₁−I/2)′=0. Retrieval at t=2: c₂=1, d₂=0, p₂=I/2 and v {p₂} is purely random. Learning at t=2: C=½ Σ_(t=1) ² ({hacek over (v)}_(t)−I/2)′ and D=Σ_(t=1) ² (v {p_(t)}−v {p_(t)}) ({hacek over (v)}_(t)−I/2)′=0. Retrieval at t=3: c₃=1, d₃=0, p₃=I/2 and the label v {p₃} is purely random. Learning at t=3: C=½ Σ_(t=1) ³ ({hacek over (v)}_(t)−I/2)′ and D=Σ_(t=1,3) (v {p_(t)}−v {p_(t−1)}) ({hacek over (v)}_(t)−I/2)′=0. Retrieval at t=4: c₄=1, d₄=0, p₄=I/2 and the label v {p₄} is purely random.

Continuing in this manner, the 16 codes v_(t) are each assigned a purely random label. Since there are 10 model spiking neurons and thus each label has 10 entries, the chance is that the 16 codes are assigned with different labels. Note that D remains to be 0 and thus no knowledge is learned.

EXAMPLE 4c

Assume that the time average

v {p_(t)}

is taken over n time units, namely

v {p_(t)}

=Σ_(i=0) ^(n−1) v {p_(t−i)}/n.

Retrieval at t=1: c₁=0, d₁=0, p₁=I/2 and v {p₁} is purely random (i.e., v {p_(1i)}=1 with probability ½ for i=1, . . . , 10). Learning at t=1: C¹=½ ({hacek over (v)}₁−I/2)′ and D¹=(v {p₁}−(v {p₁}+(n−1)I/2)/n) ({hacek over (v)}₁−I/2)′. Retrieval at t=2: c₂=1, d₂=2(v {p₁}−(v {p₁}+(n−1)I/2)/n), p₂=v {p₁}−(v {p₁}+(n−1)I/2/n)+I/2. Learning at t=2: C²=½ Σ_(t=1) ² ({hacek over (v)}_(t)−½)′ and D²=D¹+(v {p₂}−(Σ_(τ=2) ¹ v {p_(τ)}+(n−2)I/2)/n) ({hacek over (v)}₂−½I)′.

Continuing in this manner for t≦n,

Retrieval at t: c_(t)=1, d_(t)=2 (v {p_(t−1)}−(Σ_(Σ=t−1) ¹ v {p_(τ)}+(n−t+1)I/2)/n), p_(t)=v {p_(t−1)}−(Σ_(τ=t−1) ¹ v {p_(τ)}+(n−t+1)I/2)/n+½I Learning at t: C^(t)=½ Σ_(τ=1) ^(t) ({hacek over (v)}_(τ)−½)′ and D^(t)=D^(t−1)+(v {p_(t)}−(Σ_(τ=t) ¹ v {p_(τ)}+(n−t)I/2)/n) ({hacek over (v)}_(t)−½)′; and for t>n, Retrieval at t: c_(t)=1, d_(t)=2 (v {p_(t−1)}−Σ_(Σ=t−1) ^(t−n) v {p_(τ)}/n), p_(t)=v {p_(t−1)}Σ_(Σ=t−1) ^(t−n) v {p_(τ)}/n+½I. Learning at t: C^(t)=½ Σ_(τ=1) ^(t) ({hacek over (v)}_(τ)−½)′ and D^(t)=D^(t−1)+(v {p_(t)}−Σ_(τ=t) ^(t−n+1) v {p_(τ)}/n) ({hacek over (v)}_(t)−½)′.

Note that lim_(n→∞) p_(t)=v {p_(t−1)}. This is consistent with Example 2a. Two observations can be made from these formulas:

-   -   1. Given a fixed t: the greater n is, the closer p_(t) is to v         {p_(t−1)}, the closer v {p_(t)} is from v {p_(t−1)}, the more         likely v_(t) is assigned the same label v {p_(t−1)} as v_(t−1),         or the more likely v_(t) and v_(t−1) are put in the same         cluster.     -   2. Given a fixed n: for t≦n, the deviation of (Σ_(Σ=t−1) ¹ v         {p_(τ)}+(n−t+1)I/2)/n from ½I increases as t increases, and         hence the deviation of p_(t) from v {p_(t−1)} increases.         Consequently, the chance that v_(t) is assigned v {p_(t−1)} as         than v_(t−1) decreases as t increases, and the chance that v_(t)         and v_(t−1) are put in the same cluster decreases.

EXAMPLE 5

Let us now use the unsupervised covariance rule to learn the sequence of identical codes v_(t) (t)=[1 1 1 1]′, t=1, . . . , 16.

Assume that the time average

v {p_(t)}

is taken over n time units, namely

v {p_(t)}

=Σ_(i=0) ^(n−1) v {p_(t−i)}/n.

Retrieval at t=1: c₁=0, d₁=0, p₁=I/2 and v {p₁} is purely random (i.e., v {p_(1i)}=1 with probability ½ for i=1, . . . , 10). Learning at t=1: C¹=½ ({hacek over (v)}₁−I/2)′ and D¹=(v {p₁}−(v {p₁}+(n−1)I/2)/n) ({hacek over (v)}₁−I/2)′. Retrieval at t=2: c₂=2, d₂=4(v {p₁}−(v {p₁}+(n−1)I/2)/n), p₂=v {p₁}−(v {p₁}+(n−1)I/2)/n+I/2. Learning at t=2: C²=½ Σ_(t=1) ² ({hacek over (v)}_(t)−½)′ and D²=D¹+(v {p₂}−(Σ_(τ2) ¹ v {p_(τ)}+(n−2)I/2)/n). ({hacek over (v)}₂−½I). Retrieval at t=3: c₃=4, d₃=d₂+4 (v {p₂}−(Σ_(τ=2) ¹ v {p_(τ)}+(n−2)I/2)/n), p₃=(p₂+v {p₂}−(Σ_(τ=2) ¹ v {p_(τ)}+(n−2)I/2)/n+½I)/2 Learning at t=3: C³=½ Σ_(t=1) ³ ({hacek over (v)}_(t)−½)′ and D³=D²+(v {p₃}−(Σ_(τ=2) ¹ v {p_(τ)}−(n−2)I/2)/n). ({hacek over (v)}₃−½)′ Retrieval at t=4:

${c_{4} = 6},{d_{4} = {d_{3} + {4\left( {{v\left\{ p_{3} \right\}} - {\left( {{\sum\limits_{\tau = 2}^{1}{v\left\{ p_{\tau} \right\}}} - {\left( {n - 2} \right){I/2}}} \right)/n}} \right)}}},{p_{4} = {\left( {{\sum\limits_{\tau = 2}^{3}p_{\tau}} + {v\left\{ p_{3} \right\}} - {\frac{1}{n}{\sum\limits_{\tau = 2}^{1}{v\left\{ p_{\tau} \right\}}}} - {\frac{n - 3}{2\; n}I} + {\frac{1}{2}I}} \right)/3}}$

Continuing in this manner for t≦n,

Retrieval at t: c_(t)=2(t−1), d_(t)=4 (v {p_(t−1)}−(Σ_(τ=t−1) ¹ v {p_(τ)}+(n−t+1)I/2)/n), p_(t)=[Σ_(τ=2) ^(t−1) p_(τ)+v {p_(t−1)}−(Σ_(τ=t−1) ¹ v {p_(τ)}+(n−t+1)I/2)/n+½I]/(t−1). Learning at t: C^(t)=½ Σ_(τ=1) ^(t) ({hacek over (v)}_(τ)−½)′ and D^(t)=D^(t−1)+(v {p_(t)}−(Σ_(τ=t) ¹ v {p_(τ)}+(n−t)I/2)/n). ({hacek over (v)}_(t)−½)′; and for t>n, Retrieval at t: c_(t)=2(t−1), d_(t)=4 (v {p_(t−1)}−Σ_(τ=t−1) ^(t−n) v {p_(τ)}/n), p_(t)=[Σ_(τ=2) ^(t−1) p_(τ) v {p_(t−1)}−Σ_(τ=t−1) ^(t−n) v {p_(τ)}/n+½I]/(t−1). Learning at t: C^(t)=½ Σ_(τ=1) ^(t) ({hacek over (v)}_(τ)−½)′ and D^(t)=D^(t−1)+(v {p_(t)}−Σ_(τ=t) ^(t−n+1) v {p_(τ)}/n) ({hacek over (v)}_(t)−½).

The two observations are valid here. However, p_(t)=(Σ_(τ=2) ^(t−1) p_(τ)+v {p_(t−1)}−(Σ_(τ=t−1) ¹ v {p_(τ)}+(n−t+1)I/2)/n+½I)/(t−1) shows that the change from p_(t−1) to p_(t) for learning identical codes is much smaller than that for learning the sequence of Gray codes in EXAMPLE 4c. This means that for some n, the identical codes can be put in the same cluster, and yet the 16 Gray codes are put in more than one cluster. In fact, it is acceptable by the LOM that the identical codes are assigned different labels as long as the labels differ by a couple of bits, because these labels are inputs to other PUs, which have generalization capability.

The Gray codes in the given learning order are an extreme example that does not exist in the real-world. The analysis in the above examples show that sizes of the clusters of the Gray codes in the given learning order can be controlled by selecting n appropriately. In the real world, repeated learning is a frequently encountered situation. Therefore, we should select n large enough to guarantee that the chance for putting the same input vector in repeated learning into two different clusters is negligible. Only under the condition this requirement is fulfilled, we select n as small as possible to prevent a cluster to overgrow. Of course, the maximum size of a cluster depends on the application of the LOM. (In fact, having more clusters does little harm to the processing of the LOM. It is like having multiple words for similar things.) The formulas for determining p_(t) in the above examples can be generalized easily for any dimensionality of the input vector and any number of presentations for similar input vectors (i.e., those with a small number of different bits) or identical input vectors. Generalizations of the formulas in Example 5 are especially useful for determining the smallest n required for not assigning different labels to identical input vectors.

5.7 Learning Masking Factors for Unsupervised Learning of Vectors with Smaller Differences

In supervised learning by an SPU (supervised processing unit), the label is not generated by the SPU, but is provided from outside the SPU (or the LOM). If different labels are provided for input vectors with small differences, the SPU learns the different labels and can distinguish said input vectors with small differences thereafter. In unsupervised learning by an UPU, if the UPU is required to be able to distinguish learned input vectors with small differences and to remain to be able to recognize unlearned input vectors that have larger differences with (or are more different from) learned input vectors, other masking matrices that are more strict (or less tolerant) than the masking matrices are used. These other masking matrices have a smaller J in (32) than the masking matrices do and are called the learning masking matrices. The learning masking matrices, denoted by M^(#) (ψ), ψ=1, . . . , Ψ, form a general masking matrix called the general learning masking matrix

M ^(#)=diag[M ^(#)(1)M ^(#)(2) . . . M ^(#)(Ψ)]  (59)

It is a diagonal matrix. The diagonal entries are numbered consecutively from 1 to dim {hacek over (v)}_(τ)=Σ_(ψ=1) ^(Ψ) 2^(dim v) ^(τ) ^((ψ)), where {hacek over (v)}_(τ) is the general neuronal code, whose entries are also numbered consecutively from 1 to dim {hacek over (v)}_(τ). The diagonal entries M_(jj) ^(#), j=1, . . . , dim {hacek over (v)}_(τ), of M^(#) are called learning masking factors.

An UPU (unsupervised processing unit) with learning masking matrices M^(#) (ψ), ψ=1, . . . , Ψ, still generates the binary vector v {p_(τ)} that is output from the UPU in response to the vector v_(τ) input to the UPU using its masking matrices M (ψ), ψ=1, . . . , Ψ, as before. However, when the UPU learns, the learning masking matrices M^(#) (ψ), ψ=1, . . . , Ψ, are used instead to generate an estimate v {p_(τ) ^(#)} of the label of v_(t), and the general code covariance matrix D is adjusted by

D(ψ)←λD(ψ)+Λ(v{p _(τ) ^(#) }−

v{p _(τ) ^(#)}

)({hacek over (v)} _(τ) −

{hacek over (v)} _(τ)

)′  (60)

More specifically, v {p_(τ) ^(#)} is generated as follows:

$\begin{matrix} {\left\lbrack c_{\tau \; j}^{\#} \right\rbrack = \left\lbrack {M_{jj}^{\#}{C_{j}\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau}\rangle}} \right)}} \right\rbrack} & (61) \\ {\left\lbrack d_{\tau \; {kj}}^{\#} \right\rbrack = \left\lbrack {M_{jj}^{\#}{D_{kj}\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{\tau}\rangle}} \right)}} \right\rbrack} & (62) \\ {c_{\tau}^{\#} = {\sum\limits_{j`}c_{\tau \; j}^{\#}}} & (63) \\ {p_{\tau \; k}^{\#} = {\left( {{\sum\limits_{j`}d_{\tau \; {kj}}} + c_{\tau \;}^{\#}} \right)/\left( {2\; c_{\tau}^{\#}} \right)}} & (64) \end{matrix}$

v {p_(τk) ^(#)} is a pseudorandom number generated in accordance with the subjective probability distribution p_(τk) ^(#), and then v {p_(τ) ^(#)}=[v {p_(τ1) ^(#)} . . . v {p_(τR) ^(#)}]′, where R is the number of model spiking neurons in the UPU. A typical UPU with learning masking factors M_(jj) ^(#), j=1, . . . , dim {hacek over (v)}_(τ) is illustrated in FIG. 24.

5.8 Spike Trains for Each Exogenous Feature Vector

Recall that a binary vector u_(t) output from a PU (processing unit), is obtained by a pseudo-random number generator using the subjective probability distribution p_(t) of the label r_(t) of a vector v_(t) input to the PU. Components of such binary vectors u_(t) with uncertainty form vectors input to other or the same PUs through feedforward or feedback connections. Upon receiving a vector with uncertainty, a PU uses masking matrices to suppress or “filter out” some components so that the remaining components are consistent with those stored in the code covariance matrices. (Masking matrices are described in Section 5.4.)

However, there is a chance for the pseudo-random number generator to generate a binary vector u_(t) that is such an outlier for the subjective probability distribution p_(t) that causes undesirable effects on learning and retrieving of PUs receiving components of u_(t) in spite of masking matrices. To minimize such undesirable effects and to represent the subjective probabilities involved in the PUs, the LOM usually completes a certain number of rounds of retrieving and learning for each exogenous vector v_(t) ^(ex) input to the LOM so that many pseudorandom versions of u_(t) are generated and learned by each PU for the same v_(t) ^(ex).

To have ζ rounds of retrieving and learning for each exogenous vector v_(t) ^(ex), the exogenous vector must be held constant for ζ units of time. In other words, the exogenous vector v_(t) ^(ex) is presented to the LOM with a different time scale. More specifically, v_(t) ^(ex) changes at t=iζ+1, i=0, 1, 2, . . . . Consequently, a PU generates a sequence of binary vectors denoted by u_(t), t=iζ+j, j=1, 2, . . . , ζ, for each exogenous feature vector v_(t) ^(ex), which remains constant for t=iζ+j, j=1, 2, . . . , ζ. More specifically, once a new exogenous vector v_(iζ+1) ^(ex) is presented, v_(iζ+j) ^(ex)=v_(iζ+1) ^(ex) for j=2, . . . , ζ. The sequence u_(t), t=iζ+j, j=1, 2, . . . , ζ, output from the PU consists of R spike trains, each having ζ spikes during the period of time.

Alternatively, if each exogenous vector v_(t) ^(ex) is held constant for 1 unit of time, then the PU generates a sequence of ζ binary vectors within the 1 unit of time; namely the PU generates one binary vector every 1/ζ unit of time.

5.9 Multilayer Networks of Processing Units with Feedbacks

The low-order model (LOM) of biological neural networks described in the present invention disclosure is a network of processing units (PUs) with or without time-delayed feedbacks. An LOM that is a multilayer network of PUs is described in this Subsection.

An external vector input to the LOM is called an exogenous feature vector, and a vector input to a layer of PUs is called a feature vector. A feature vector input to a layer usually contains not only feedforwarded outputs from the PUs in preceding layers but also feedbacked outputs from the PUs in the same or higher layers with time delays. A feature vector may contain components from an exogenous feature vector. For simplicity, we assume that the exogenous feature vector is only input to layer 1 and is thus a subvector of a feature vector input to layer 1. All these feature vectors and output vectors over time usually form spike trains.

A subvector of a feature vector that is input to a PU is called a feature subvector. Trace the feedforward connections backward from neurons of a PU to a subvector of a feature vector input to a layer or the exogenous feature vector. This subvector is called the receptive field of the PU in the feature vector input to the layer or the exogenous feature vector. All the measurements that affect the receptive field in the exogenous feature vector are also called the receptive field of the PU in the measurements. For example, let the measurements taken by the pixels in a digital camera be input to a model of a retina, and let the output vector from the model of the retina be used as the exogenous feature vector of the LOM. Then the measurements or the pixels with those measurements that affect the receptive field of a PU in the exogenous feature vector are called the receptive field of the PU in the measurements.

The collection of neurons in layer l−i, i=1, 2, . . . , that have a direct feedforward connection (without going through another neuron) to a neuron in a PU in layer l and the unit-time delay devices that hold a feedback that is directly input (without going through another unit-time delay device) to the same PU are called the immediate receptive field of the PU.

The feature vector input to layer l at time or numbering τ is denoted by v_(τ) ^(l−1), and the output from layer l at τ is denoted by v {p_(τ) ^(l)}. The feature vector v_(τ) ^(l−1) consists of components of the feedforwarded vector v {p_(τ) ^(l−1)} and feedbacked vector v {p_(τ−z(k)) ^(l+k)} feedbacked from the same layer l and higher layers l+k and after z (k) time units of delay for k=0, 1, . . . , where z (k) is a function of k.

FIG. 25 shows layer l and layer l+2 of PUs of the LOM. In FIG. 25, same-layer feedback connections with one unit-time delay device from layer l to itself and 2-layer feedback connections with 5 unit-time delay devices from layer l+2 to layer l are shown. The box under layer l of PUs does not model a biological entity, but illustrates that the feature vector input to layer l comprises feedforward vector v {p_(τ) ^(l−1)}, the same layer feedback v {p_(τ−1) ^(l)}, and the 2-layer feedback v {p_(τ−5) ^(l+2)}. Note that the symbols, v {p_(τ) ^(l−1)}, v {p_(τ−1) ^(l)} and v {p_(τ−5) ^(l+2)}, include all the components output from layer l−1, layer l+2, and layer l for simplicity in showing the feedback structure. For an application, we do not have to include all of them, but may select some of these components as inputs to layer l.

Once an exogenous feature vector is received by the LOM, the PUs perform functions of retrieving and/or learning from layer to layer starting with layer 1, the lowest layer. After the PUs in the highest layer, layer L, complete performing their functions, the LOM is said to have completed one round of retrievings and/or learnings. Each exogenous feature vector is held constant for a certain number ζ of time units, during which the LOM completes ζ of retrievings and/or learnings.

We note that retrieving and learning by a PU are performed locally, meaning that only the feature subvector input to the PU and its label are involved in the processing by the PU. Causes in patterns, temporal or spatial, usually form a hierarchy. Examples: (a). Phonemes, words, phrases, sentences, and paragraphs in speech. (b). Musical notes, intervals, melodic phrases, and songs in music. (c). Bananas, apples, peaches, salt shaker, pepper shaker, fruit basket, condiment tray, table, refrigerator, water sink, and kitchen in a house. Note that although Example (c) is a spatial hierarchy, when one looks around in the kitchen, the images scanned and received by the person's retina form a temporal hierarchy.

The higher a layer in the LOM is, the higher in the hierarchy the causes the PUs in the layer handle, and the more time it takes for the causes to form and be detected and recognized by the PUs. Therefore, the number of unit-time delay devices on a feedback connection is a monotone increasing function z (k) of k, which are defined above. This requirement is consistent with the workings in a biological neural network in the cortex. Note that it takes time (i) for biological PUs to process feature subvector, (ii) for spikes to travel along feedforward neural fibers from a layer to the next layer, and (iii) for spikes to travel along feedback neural fibers from a layer to the same or a lower-numbered layer. Note also the subscripts of the input vector v_(τ) ^(l−1) and output vector v {p_(τ) ^(l)} of all layers l are the same, indicating the same exogenous feature vector v_(τ) ^(ex) is processed or propagated in all layers. The common subscript τ does not represent the time that the signals in the biological network reach or processed by its layers. However, a feedback v_(τ−z(k)) ^(l+k) from layer l+k to layer l for inclusion in v_(τ) ^(l−1) must have a delay z (k) that reflects the sum of the times taken for (i), (ii) and (iii) from the input terminals of layer l back to the same input terminals.

For notational simplicity, the superscript l−1 in v_(t) ^(l−1) and dependencies on l−1 or l in other symbols are sometimes suppressed in the following when no confusion is expected.

Let the sequence of feature vectors, v_(t) ^(l), t=1, 2, . . . , be M-dimensional and thus v_(t) ^(l)=[v_(t1) ^(l) . . . v_(tM) ^(l)]′, whose components are ternary numbers. Let n^(l)=[n₁ ^(l) . . . n_(k) ^(l)]′ be a subvector of [1 . . . M]′ such that n₁ ^(l)< . . . <n_(k) ^(l). The subvector

${v_{t}^{l}\left( n^{l} \right)}:=\begin{bmatrix} v_{{tn}_{1}^{l}}^{l} & \ldots & v_{{tn}_{k}^{l}}^{l} \end{bmatrix}^{\prime}$

of v_(t) ^(l) is called a feature subvector of v_(t) ^(l). n_(l) is called a feature subvector index (FSI), and v_(t) ^(l) (n) is said to be a feature subvector on the FSI n^(l) or have the FSI n^(l). Each UPU is associated with a fixed FSI n^(l) and denoted by UPU (n^(l)). Using these notations, the sequence of subvectors of v_(t) ^(l−1), t=1, 2, . . . , that is input to UPU(n^(l)) is v_(t) ^(l−1) (n^(l)), t=1, 2, . . . . The FSI n^(l) of a UPU usually has subvectors, n^(l) (ψ), ψ=1, . . . , Ψ, on which subvectors v_(t) ^(l−1) (n_(l) (ψ)) of v_(t) ^(l−1) (n^(l)) are separately processed by the neuronal encoders in UPU(n^(l)) at first. The subvectors, n^(l) (ψ), ψ=1, . . . , Ψ, are not necessarily disjoint, but are all inclusive in the sense that every component of n^(l) is included in at least one of the subvectors n^(l) (ψ). Moreover, the components of n^(l) (ψ) are usually randomly selected from those of n^(l).

The UPUs in layer l have FSIs (feature subvector indices) denoted by 1^(l), 2^(l), . . . , N^(l). Upon receiving a feature vector v_(τ) ^(l−1) by layer l, the feature subvectors, v_(τ) ^(l−1) (1^(l)), v_(τ) ^(l−1) (2^(l)), . . . , v_(τ) ^(l−1) (N^(l)), are formed and processed by UPU(1^(l)), UPU(2^(l)), . . . , and UPU(N^(l)) to compute the subjective probabilities, p_(τ) ^(l) (1^(l)), p_(τ) ^(l) (2^(l)), . . . , p_(τ) ^(l) (N^(l)), first and then generate the pseudo-random ternary vectors v {p_(τ) ^(l) (1^(l))}, v {p_(τ) ^(l) (2^(l))}, . . . , v {p_(τ) ^(l) (N^(l))}. Recall that p_(τ) ^(l) (n^(l)) is the subjective probability of the label r_(τ) (n^(l)) of v_(τ) ^(l−1) (n^(l)), and v {p_(τ) ^(l) (n^(l))} is the output of UPU (n^(l)) based on p_(τ) ^(l) (n^(l)). These subjective probabilities and UPU outputs are grouped into the subjective probability distribution p_(τ) ^(l) and the output vector v {p_(τ) ^(l)} of layer l as follows:

p _(τ) ^(l) =[p _(τ) ^(k)′(1^(l))p _(τ) ^(l)′(2^(l)) . . . p _(τ) ^(l)′(N ^(l))]′

v{p _(τ) ^(l) }=[v′{p _(τ) ^(l)(1^(l))} v′{p _(τ) ^(l)(2^(l))} . . . v′{p _(τ) ^(l)(N ^(l))}]′

The components of a feature vector v_(τ) ^(l−1) input to layer l at time (or numbering) τ comprise components of binary vectors generated by UPUs in layer l−1 and those generated at previous times by UPUs in the same layer l or UPUs in higher layers with layer numberings l+k for some positive integers k. The time delays may be of different durations.

For illustration, an example is given in the following:

EXAMPLE 4

Let us set the number z (k) of unit-time delay devices equal to 4(k+1) for k=0, . . . , 7; and set the number ζ time units that each exogenous feature vector is held constant equal to 16.

For k=1 and z (1)=8, the first 8 feedbacks used by layer l in processing an exogenous feature vector v_(t) ^(ex) are output from layer l+1 in response to v_(t−1) ^(ex), which provides temporally and spatially associated information from the preceding exogenous feature vector v_(t−1) ^(ex).

For k=5 and z (5)=24, the first 8 feedbacks used by layer l in processing an exogenous feature vector v_(t) ^(ex) are output from layer l+5 in response to v_(t−2) ^(ex); and the next 8 feedbacks are output from layer l+5 in response to v_(t−1) ^(ex), which provides temporally and spatially associated information from the preceding exogenous feature vectors, v_(t−2) ^(ex) and v_(t−1) ^(ex).

For k=8 and z (8)=36, the first 4 feedbacks used by layer l in processing an exogenous feature vector v_(t) ^(ex) are output from layer l+8 in response to v_(t−3) ^(ex); and the next 12 feedbacks are output from layer l+8 in response to v_(t−2) ^(ex), which provides temporally and spatially associated information from the preceding exogenous feature vectors, v_(t−3) ^(ex) and v_(t−2) ^(ex).

Note that the greater k, the larger the number of unit-delay devices, and the further back the feedbacked information is in processing the current exogenous feature vector yr. Note also that the further back the feedbacked information, the less spatially but more temporally associative information is used in processing v_(t) ^(ex). Moreover, given the same numbers of unit-delay devices on each feedback connection, if an exogenous feature vector is presented to the LOM for a larger number of time units, then more recent information and less further back information is used in processing v_(t) ^(ex). This means more spatially associated information but less temporally associated information is brought back by the feedback connections and utilized by the LOM.

An example LOM with three layers of PUs and feedbacks is shown in its entirety in FIG. 26. There are three types of feedback connection: same-layer feedbacks, one-layer feedbacks and two-layer feedbacks. The numbers of unit-time delay devices on the feedback connections are not specified for simplicity. The second delay box on a feedback connection represents an additional delay.

5.10 The Clusterer and Interpreter

An architecture of the LOM that makes for an effective artificial neural network comprises a cluster and an interpreter, which are described in the present Subsection. The clusterer in the LOM is a network of unsupervised processing units (UPUs) with or without time-delayed feedbacks. If the cluster has no feedback connection, it is an unsupervised ANN (artificial neural network) that clusters spatial data. If the clusterer has feedback connections, it is an unsupervised ANN that clusters spatial and/or temporal data.

The vectors output from an UPU in the clusterer in the LOM are point estimates v {p_(τ)} of the labels of clusters of vectors v_(τ) input to the UPU. These labels form a vocabulary for the UPU. To interpret such a label or its point estimate v {p_(τ)} generated by UPU into a word, a few words, a sentence or a few sentences using the language of the human user, say English, an SPU is used.

Once an exogenous feature vector is received by a clusterer in the LOM, the UPUs perform functions of retrieving and/or learning from layer to layer starting with layer 1 (i.e., the lowest layer). After the UPUs in the highest layer, layer L, complete performing their functions, the clusterer in the LOM is said to have completed one round of retrievings and/or learnings (or memory adjustments). For each exogenous feature vector, the clusterer in the LOM will continue to complete a certain number of rounds of retrievings and/or learnings.

FIG. 27 shows layer l and layer l+2 of UPUs of a clusterer with feedback connections in the LOM, wherein same-layer feedback connections have one unit-time delay device and 2-layer feedback connections have 5 unit-time delay devices from layer l+2 to layer l. The box under layer l of PUs illustrates that the feature vector input to layer l comprises feedforward vector v {p_(τ) ^(l−1)}, the same layer feedback v {p_(τ−1) ^(l)}, and the 2-layer feedback v {p_(τ−5) ^(l+2)}.

FIG. 28 shows an LOM with a clusterer and an interpreter. The clusterer in the LOM in FIG. 27 is again shown in FIG. 28. The connections and delay devices in the clusterer are not shown for clarity in FIG. 28. The three UPUs in the lowest layer are not connected to a SPU, but each of the three PUs in the second and third layers is. UPU(1²) and UPU(2²) in the second layer have feedforward connections to SPU(1³) and SPU(2³) respectively, and UPU(1³) in the third layer has feedforward connections to SPU(1⁴).

The labels, r_(τ) (1³), r_(τ) (2³) and r_(τ) (1⁴), which are used for supervised learning by the synapses in SPU(1³), SPU(2³) and SPU(1⁴) respectively are provided by the human trainer of the artificial neural network. For spatial pattern recognition, r_(τ) (n^(l)) is obtained by tracing the feedforward connections from SPU(n^(l)) all the way down to input terminals that receive the exogenous feature vector and if necessary further down to the sensor elements such as the pixels in the CCD of a camera. These input terminals or sensory elements are called the receptive field of SPU(n^(l)) and UPU(n^(l−1)) in the measurements. If the human trainer sees a distinct cause such as an apple or John Doe's face in the receptive field, he/she assigns the bipolar binary code of a word or a phrase such as “apple” or “John Does's face” to the bipolar binary label r_(τ) (n^(l)). Since supervised covariance learning is very easy and the output vector of SPU(n^(l)), which has the same number of bits as r_(τ) (n^(l)), will not be used as inputs to another PU, the total number of bits in r_(τ) (n^(l)) can be made as large as needed to hold the longest code for the receptive field. Shorter codes can be made longer by including zeros at the beginning or ending of the shorter codes.

The receptive field of an SPU branching out from a higher layer is larger than that of an SPU branching out from a lower layer. The cause in a larger receptive field usually requires a longer bipolar binary code to represent. For example, there are only 26 letters, more than 10,000 commonly used words, and millions of commonly used sentences; which need codes of 5 bits, 14 bits, and 30 bits, respectively. To avoid using a look-up table to translate codes into English word or sentences, we can simply type the letters, the words or the sentences to assign their ASCII codes to r_(τ) (n^(l)).

To avoid an SPU using different codes for the same pattern or cause, we may use SPU(n^(l)) to retrieve its v {p_(τ) ^(l) (n^(l))}. If it is not recognizable by the human trainer, if it does not agree with the human trainer, or if the subjective probability distribution p_(τ) ^(l) (n^(l)) does not contain enough information; we assign a new r_(τ) (n^(l)) to SPU(n_(l)). A measure of information contained in p_(τ) ^(l) (n^(l)) is

${\xi \left( {p_{\tau}\left( n^{l} \right)} \right)} = {1 - {\frac{4}{R}{\sum\limits_{k = 1}^{R}{{p_{\tau \; k}^{l}\left( n^{l} \right)}{\left( {1 - {p_{\tau \; k}^{l}\left( n^{l} \right)}} \right).}}}}}$

If p_(τk) ^(l) (n^(l))=0 or 1 for k=1, 2, . . . , R, then ξ (p_(τ) ^(l) (n^(l)))=1 and ξ (p_(τ) ^(l) (n^(l))) is maximized, meaning there is no uncertainty in p_(τ) (n^(l)). If p_(τk) (n^(l))=½ for k=1, 2, . . . , R, then ξ (p_(τ) (n^(l)))=0 and ξ (p_(τ) (n^(l))) is minimized, meaning there is no information in p_(τ) (n^(l)).

Recall that the clusterer of the LOM learns independently of the learning (or even existence) of SPUs in the LOM's interpreter. Whenever new information is acquired for creating a new handcrafted label for the output of an UPU with or without an SPU, a new SPU can be added and learn the new label. Therefore, there can be multiple SPUs for an UPU, providing multiple interpretations of the output from the UPUs. For example, if the head of a man shows up in the receptive field of an UPU, there may be 2 SPUs that output labels, “head of a man with long hair” and “head of Albert Einstein” in response to the vector output from the UPU. If it is later found that the photograph containing the head of Einstein was taken in 1945, a third SPU can be added that outputs the handcrafted label “An image of Albert Einstein in 1945” in response to the same vector output from the UPU.

5.11 Preprocessing Exogenous Feature Vectors for the LOM

If feature vectors α_(t) ^(ex), t=1, 2, . . . , to be processed by an artificial neural network have components being real numbers, a and b, or near a and b, where a and b are not unipolar binary digits (i.e., 0 and 1), a preprocessor is used to convert the feature vectors into unipolar binary digits or values near them before processing by the LOM.

Given a variable α whose value is either a real number a or a real number b, it can be transformed into a variable v whose value is either 0 or 1, respectively, by the following function:

$v = {{f(\alpha)} = \frac{\alpha - a}{b - a}}$

If α is near a or near b, then v is near f (a)=0 or near f (b)=1, respectively. Given a vector α=[α₁ α₂ . . . α_(m)]′ whose components are real numbers, a and b, the vector α can be transformed into a binary vector v by the function

v=f(α)=[f(α₁)f(α₂) . . . f(α_(m))]′

If the component of α is near a or near b, then the corresponding components of v are near f (a) or near f (b), respectively. Notice that the symbol f denotes both a real-valued function of a real-valued variable α and a vector-valued function of a vector variable α with real components.

If the exogenous feature vectors α_(t) ^(ex), t=1, 2, . . . , to be processed by an artificial neural network have components being real numbers, a and b, or near a and near b, the vectors α_(t) ^(ex), t=1, 2, . . . , can be converted into binary or nearly binary vectors v_(t) ^(ex), t=1, 2, . . . , by v_(t) ^(ex)=f (α_(t) ^(ex)), t=1, 2, . . . . The low-order model (LOM) described hereinabove can then be applied.

5.12 The CIPAM—an ANN Mathematical Equivalent to the LOM

The LOM is a model of biological neural networks, wherein most biological neurons communicate with spike trains. Spike trains are usually modeled as sequences of 1's and 0's. The feature vectors, neuronal codes, neuron inputs, and neuron outputs in the LOM are all (unipolar) binary vectors, whose components are 1's and 0's. On the other hand, the corresponding quantities in the functional model of biological neural networks, the THPAM, are bipolar binary vectors, whose components are −1's and 1's. The development of the LOM motivated a re-examination of the THPAM to improve the THPAM and eliminate its shortcomings.

This re-examination resulted in still another functional model of biological neural networks, namely the Clustering Interpreting Probabilistic Associative Memory (CIPAM), reported in James Ting-Ho Lo, A Cortex-Like Learning Machine for Temporal Hierarchical Pattern Clustering, Detection, and Recognition, Neurocomputing, Vol. 78, pp. 89-103, 2012; also available online with DOI: 10.1016/j.neucom.2011.04.046, which is incorporated into the present invention disclosure by reference. As in the THPAM, the feature vectors, neuronal codes, neuron inputs, and neuron outputs in the CIPAM are all bipolar binary vectors, whose components are −1's and 1's. Among differences between the CIPAM and the THPAM, a main difference is that the former uses the unsupervised and supervised covariance learning rule and the latter uses the unsupervised and supervised correlation learning rule. This main difference necessitates some other differences including that in their retrieving methods; namely the former uses decovariance rule and the latter decorrelation rule. For applications, the LOM, THPAM and CIPAM are all artificial neural networks (ANNs).

The high degree of similarity between the LOM and the CIPAM motivated a study of their relation. This study led to the discovery that LOM and the CIPAM together with their corresponding components can be mathematically transformed into each other by the affine transformation and its inverse:

v=f(x)=½(1−x)  (65)

x=f ⁻¹(v)=1−2v  (66)

where f⁻¹ denotes the inverse function of f. Notice that f (1)=0 and f (−1)=1, and that f⁻¹ (0)=1 and f⁻¹ (1)=1. Note f (0)=½. Using the CIPAM to process vectors with components from {−1, 0, 1} is equivalent to using the LOM to process vectors with components from {1, ½, 0}. However, for simplicity, processing vectors whose components are from these ternary sets are not described in detail in the present invention disclosure. Those skilled in the art are not expected to have difficulty with extending the invention for processing such vectors.

A bipolar binary digit x, whose value is 1 or −1 and a unipolar binary digit v, whose value is 0 or 1, can be transformed into each other, respectively by (65) and (66). Each component of the LOM and its corresponding component of the CIPAM can be transformed into each other by (65) and (66). From this viewpoint, the CIPAM and the LOM are mathematically equivalent artificial neural networks. The CIPAM has advantages similar to those of the LOM over the THPAM. As an artificial neural network, the CIPAM is computationally less expensive than the LOM.

In the operation of the CIPAM, the exogenous feature vectors and the feature vectors input to each layer of its neurons or PUs (processing units) are bipolar binary vectors whose components assume values from the bipolar binary set {−1, 1}. As an equivalent of the LOM, the CIPAM does not have the shortcomings of the PAM (i.e., THPAM) mentioned in Subsection 2 (e.g., the inability of the PAM's unsupervised correlation learning mechanism to prevent clusters from overgrowing under certain circumstances). On the other hand, because the CIPAM processes bipolar binary digits, {−1, 1}, it is computationally less expansive than the LOM, which processes (unipolar) binary digits, {0, 1}. The CIPAM is briefly described through transforming the LOM into the CIPAM below. A detailed description is given in the paper by James Ting-Ho Lo, A Cortex-Like Learning Machine for Temporal Hierarchical Pattern Clustering, Detection, and Recognition, Neurocomputing, DOI: 10.1016/j.neucom.2011.04.046, which is incorporated herein by reference.

By (65) and (66), given a bipolar binary variable x, whose value is 1 or −1, we can transform it into a (unipolar) binary variable v by v=f (x)=½ (1−x) and the other way around by x=f⁻¹ (v)=1−2v. Let v=f (x) and u=f (y). Recall that the neuronal node performs φ (v, u)=−2vu+v+u. By simple substitution,

φ(f(x),f(y))=½(1−xy)

f ⁻¹(φ(f(x),f(y)))=xy

Therefore, this function xy is a representation of the neuronal node operation, where the inputs of the neuronal node are represented by x and y and its output is represented by xy. Note that if x and y are bipolar binary variables, xy is the NXOR (not-exclusive-or) function.

Using this representation of the neuronal node operation, the equations (2)-(5) that generate the neuronal code (or encoding) {hacek over (v)} of an m-dimensional vector v are respectively replaced by the following equations for generating the representation {hacek over (x)} of {hacek over (v)}:

$\begin{matrix} {{\overset{\Cup}{x}(1)} = \begin{bmatrix} 1 & x_{1} \end{bmatrix}^{\prime}} & (67) \\ \begin{matrix} {{\overset{\Cup}{x}\left( {1,2} \right)} = \begin{bmatrix} {\overset{\Cup}{x}(1)} & {x_{2}{\overset{\Cup}{x}(1)}} \end{bmatrix}} \\ {= \begin{bmatrix} 1 & x_{1} & x_{2} & {x_{2}x_{1}} \end{bmatrix}} \end{matrix} & (68) \\ {{\overset{\Cup}{x}\left( {1,\ldots \mspace{14mu},{k + 1}} \right)} = \begin{bmatrix} {{\overset{\Cup}{x}}^{\prime}\left( {1,\ldots \mspace{14mu},j} \right)} & {x_{k + 1}{{\overset{\Cup}{x}}^{\prime}\left( {1,\ldots \mspace{14mu},k} \right)}} \end{bmatrix}^{\prime}} & (69) \\ {\overset{\Cup}{x} = {\overset{\Cup}{x}\left( {1,\ldots \mspace{14mu},m} \right)}} & (70) \end{matrix}$

This representation of the neuronal code is actually the orthogonal expansion of x discussed in the paper by James Ting-Ho Lo, Functional Model of Biological Neural Networks, Cognitive Neurodynamics, Vol. 4, No. 4, pp. 295-313, November 2010 and the patent application by James Ting-Ho Lo, A Cortex-Like Learning Machine for Temporal and Hierarchical Pattern Recognition, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/471,341, filed May 22, 2009; Publication No. US-2009-0290800-A1, Publication Date: Nov. 26, 2009. In the same paper and same patent application, it is proven that given two m-dimensional vectors, x and y, their orthogonal expansions, {hacek over (x)} and {hacek over (y)}, satisfy

$\begin{matrix} {{{\overset{\Cup}{x}}^{\prime}\overset{\Cup}{y}} = {\prod\limits_{j = 1}^{m}\; \left( {1 + {x_{j}y_{j}}} \right)}} & (71) \end{matrix}$

Recall that for real-valued variables, v, u, x, and y,

${v - \frac{1}{2}} = {{- \frac{1}{2}}x}$ ${{\varphi \left( {v,u} \right)} - \frac{1}{2}} = {{{- 2}\left( {v - \frac{1}{2}} \right)\left( {u - \frac{1}{2}} \right)} = {- \frac{xy}{2}}}$

The relation between the above formula 71 and the formula (6) can be seen by observing that for m-dimensional vectors, v, u, x, y, and their neuronal codes, {hacek over (v)}, {hacek over (u)}, and orthogonal expansions, {hacek over (x)}, {hacek over (y)}, respectively; we have {hacek over (v)}−½I=−½{hacek over (x)} and {hacek over (u)}−½I=−½{hacek over (y)}, and

$\begin{matrix} \begin{matrix} {{\prod\limits_{j = 1}^{m}\; \left( {1 + {x_{k}y_{k}}} \right)} = {4\left( {{- \frac{1}{2}}\overset{\Cup}{x}} \right)^{\prime}\left( {{- \frac{1}{2}}\overset{\Cup}{y}} \right)}} \\ {= {4\left( {\overset{\Cup}{v} - {\frac{1}{2}I}} \right)^{\prime}\left( {\overset{\Cup}{u} - {\frac{1}{2}I}} \right)}} \\ {= {\prod\limits_{k = 1}^{m}\; \left( {1 + {2^{2}\left( {v_{k} - \frac{1}{2}} \right)\left( {u_{k} - \frac{1}{2}} \right)}} \right)}} \end{matrix} & (72) \end{matrix}$

where I=[1 1 . . . 1]′, which we note is not the identity matrix I. From the formula 71, it follows that if x and y are bipolar binary variables,

$\begin{matrix} \begin{matrix} {{{{\overset{\Cup}{x}}^{\prime}\overset{\Cup}{y}} = 0},{{{if}\mspace{14mu} x} \neq y}} \\ {{= 2^{m}},{{{if}\mspace{14mu} x} = y}} \end{matrix} & (73) \end{matrix}$

Based on the transformations, (65) and (66), and the above corresponding properties between the variables x and y and the variables v and u, the LOM (low-order model of biological neural networks) described in preceding Subsections can be transformed into the CIPAM, which is an equivalent of LOM. In this equivalent of LOM, components of feature vectors, “spikes and nonspikes”, and components of labels are bipolar binary digits or in their vicinities. The variables whose values are such digits and numbers will be denoted by x_(tj), y_(ti) and z_(ti) instead of v_(tj), u_(ti) and w_(ti) in the following lists of formulas for the equivalent, CIPAM. Here x_(tj)=f⁻¹ (v_(tj)), y_(ti)=f⁻¹ (u_(ti)), and z_(ti)=f⁻¹ (w_(ti)).

For unsupervised covariance learning by the CIPAM, the formulas, (11), (12) and (13), are respectively transformed into

$\begin{matrix} \left. D_{ij}\leftarrow{{\lambda \; D_{ij}} + {{\Lambda \left( {y_{ti} - {\langle y_{ti}\rangle}} \right)}\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{x}}_{tj} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{x}}_{tj}\rangle}} \right)}} \right. & (74) \\ \left. D\leftarrow{{\lambda \; D} + {{\Lambda \left( {y_{t} - {\langle y_{t}\rangle}} \right)}\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{x}}_{t} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{x}}_{t}\rangle}} \right)^{\prime}}} \right. & (75) \\ {D = {\Lambda {\sum\limits_{s = 1}^{t}{{\lambda^{t - s}\left( {y_{s} - {\langle y_{s}\rangle}} \right)}\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{x}}_{s} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{x}}_{s}\rangle}} \right)^{\prime}}}}} & (76) \end{matrix}$

where x_(t) is a vector input to a neuronal encoder; each of the 2^(m) outputs, {hacek over (x)}_(t1), {hacek over (x)}_(t2), . . . , {hacek over (x)}_(t2) _(m) , from the neuronal encoder at time (or numbering) t, pass through a synapse to reach each of a number, say R, postsynaptic model spiking neurons and a postsynaptic model nonspiking neuron; and the output of model spiking neuron i is denoted by y_(ti). y_(t) is the vector of R outputs y_(ti) of the R model spiking neurons. Furthermore, the formulas, (14), (15) and (16), are respectively transformed into

$\begin{matrix} \left. D_{ij}\leftarrow{{\lambda \; D_{ij}} + {\Lambda \; {y_{ti}\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{x}}_{tj} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{x}}_{tj}\rangle}} \right)}}} \right. & (77) \\ \left. D\leftarrow{{\lambda \; D} + {\Lambda \; {y_{t}\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{x}}_{t} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{x}}_{t}\rangle}} \right)}^{\prime}}} \right. & (78) \\ {D = {\Lambda {\sum\limits_{s = 1}^{t}{\lambda^{t - s}{y_{s}\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{x}}_{s} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{x}}_{s}\rangle}} \right)}^{\prime}}}}} & (79) \end{matrix}$

For supervised covariance learning by the CIPAM, (17), (18), and (19) are respectively transformed into

$\begin{matrix} \left. D_{ij}\leftarrow{{\lambda \; D_{ij}} + {\Lambda \; {z_{ti}\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{x}}_{tj} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{x}}_{tj}\rangle}} \right)}}} \right. & (80) \\ \left. D\leftarrow{{\lambda \; D} + {\Lambda \; {z_{t}\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{x}}_{t} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{x}}_{t}\rangle}} \right)}^{\prime}}} \right. & (81) \\ {D = {\Lambda {\sum\limits_{s = 1}^{t}{\lambda^{t - s}{z_{s}\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{x}}_{s} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{x}}_{s}\rangle}} \right)}^{\prime}}}}} & (82) \end{matrix}$

where z_(t) is a label of the pattern (or cause) inside the receptive field of the R model spiking neurons, and is provided from outside the CIPAM. Here z_(s), s=1, 2, . . . t, are bipolar binary vectors or nearly bipolar binary vectors.

For unsupervised accumulation learning by the CIPAM, (21) and (22) are respectively transformed into

$\begin{matrix} \left. C\leftarrow{{\lambda \; C} + {\frac{\Lambda}{2}\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{x}}_{t} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{x}}_{t}\rangle}} \right)^{\prime}}} \right. & (83) \\ {C = {\frac{\Lambda}{2}{\sum\limits_{s = 1}^{t}{\lambda^{t - s}\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{x}}_{s} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{x}}_{s}\rangle}} \right)}^{\prime}}}} & (84) \end{matrix}$

For retrieving information from synapses, (24) and (25) are respectively transformed into

d _(τ) =D({hacek over (x)} _(τ) −

{hacek over (x)} _(τ)

)  (85)

c _(τ) =C({hacek over (x)} _(τ) −

{hacek over (x)} _(τ)

)  (86)

For maximal generalization, the masking matrix (32) remains the same, but (33) and (34), are replaced with

d _(τ) =DM({hacek over (x)} _(τ) −

{hacek over (x)} _(τ)

  (87)

c _(τ) =CM({hacek over (x)} _(τ) −

{hacek over (x)} _(τ)

)  (88)

which are also called the decovariance rule.

To describe the feature subvector input to a processing unit with Ψ multiple neuronal encoders in the CIPAM, the formulas, (39) and (40), are respectively transformed into

{hacek over (x)} _(t) =[{hacek over (x)} _(t)′(1){hacek over (x)} _(t)′(2) . . . {hacek over (x)} _(t)′(Ψ)]′  (89)

{hacek over (x)} _(t)

=[

{hacek over (x)} _(t)′(1)

{hacek over (x)} _(t)′(2)

. . .

{hacek over (x)} _(t)′(Ψ)

]′  (90)

The formula, (43), for the general masking matrix M for a PU in the CIPAM remains the same. The general expansion covariance matrix D learned by the unsupervised covariance rule by an UPU in the CIPAM is defined by (41), where the code covariance matrix D (O) is defined by (76) or (79), depending on whether y_(s)−

y_(s)

or y_(s) is used. The general expansion covariance matrix D learned by the supervised covariance rule by an UPU in the CIPAM is defined by (41), where the code covariance matrix D (ψ) is defined by (82). The general expansion covariance matrix C for the CIPAM is defined by (42), where the code covariance matrix C (ψ) is defined by (84).

For retrieving information from synapses by the CIPAM, the formulas, (44) and (45), are transformed into

d _(τ)(ψ)=D(ψ)M(ψ)({hacek over (x)} _(τ)(ψ)−

{hacek over (x)} _(τ)(ψ)

)  (91)

c _(τ)(ψ)=C(ψ)M(ψ)({hacek over (x)} _(τ)(ψ)−

{hacek over (x)} _(τ)(ψ)

)  (92)

for ψ=1, . . . , Ψ.

The computations performed by a nonspiking neuron and by spiking neuron k in a PU in the CIPAM are respectively the addition of components of c_(τ) (ψ), ψ=1, . . . , Ψ, and the addition of kth rows of d_(τ) (ψ), ψ=1, . . . , Ψ to get c_(τ) and d_(τk). Expressions of the resulting sums, c_(τ) and d_(τk), can be expressed by transforming (54) and (55) respectively into

c _(τ) =CM({hacek over (x)} _(τ) −

{hacek over (x)} _(τ)

)  (93)

d _(τk) =D _(k) M({hacek over (x)} _(τ) −

{hacek over (x)} _(τ)

)  (94)

(c_(τ)+d_(τk))/2 is an estimate of 2^(m) times the total number of times v_(τ) and its variants have been encoded and stored in C with the kth component r_(τk) of r_(τ) being 1. c_(τ) is an estimate of 2^(m) times the total number of times v_(τ) and its variants have been encoded and stored in C. Consequently, (d_(τk)/c_(τ)+1)/2 is a subjective probability p_(τk) that r_(τk) is equal to 1 given x_(t) input to the PU. Model spiking neuron k then uses a pseudo-random number generator to generate a number (or “spike”) 1 with probability p_(τk) and a number −1 (representing “no spike”) with probability 1−p_(τk). This pseudo-random number denoted by x {p_(τk)} is the output y_(τk) of model spiking neuron k at time or numbering τ. y_(τk)=x {p_(τk)} is thus a point estimate of the k-th component r_(τk) of the label r_(τ) of x_(τ).

Note that the vector

p _(τ) =[p _(τ1) p _(τ2) . . . p _(τR)]′

is a representation of a subjective probability distribution of the label r_(τ). Note also that the outputs of the R model spiking neurons in response to x_(τ) form a bipolar binary vector y_(τ)=x {p_(τ)}, which is a point estimate of the label r_(τ) of the vector x_(τ) input to the PU, whether r_(τ) is y_(τ) in unsupervised learning or z_(τ) in supervised learning.

The CIPAM has the following computational advantage over LOM: While the (model) neuronal node in LOM evaluates −2vu+v+u, the (model) neuronal node in the CIPAM evaluates xy. The former involves 2 multiplications and two additions, and the latter a single multiplication. In a neuronal encoder with an m-dimensional input vector, there are 2^(m) neuronal nodes. Therefore, the CIPAM is computationally much less expensive than LOM.

The learning masking matrices, denoted by M^(#) (ψ), ψ=1, . . . , Ψ, form a general masking matrix called the general learning masking matrix

M ^(#)=diag[M ^(#)(1)M ^(#)(2) . . . M ^(#)(Ψ)]  (95)

which is a diagonal matrix. The diagonal entries are numbered consecutively from 1 to dim {hacek over (x)}_(τ)=Σ_(ψ=1) ^(Ψ) 2^(dim x) ^(τ) ^((ψ)), where {hacek over (x)}_(τ) is a general neuronal code, whose entries are also numbered consecutively from 1 to dim {hacek over (x)}_(τ). The diagonal entries M_(jj) ^(#), j=1, . . . , dim {hacek over (x)}_(τ), of M^(#) are called learning masking factors.

An UPU (unsupervised processing unit) with learning masking matrices M^(#) (ψ), ψ=1, . . . , Ψ, generates an estimate x {p_(τ)} of the label of the vector x_(τ) input to the UPU using its masking matrices M (ψ), ψ=1, . . . , Ψ, as before. However, when it comes to learning, the learning masking matrices M^(#) (ψ), ψ=1, . . . , Ψ, are used instead to generate an estimate x {p_(τ) ^(#)} of the label of x_(t), and the general code covariance matrix D is adjusted by

D(ψ)←λD(ψ)+Λ(x{p _(τ) ^(#) }−

x{p _(τ) ^(#)}

)({hacek over (x)} _(τ) −

{hacek over (x)} _(τ)

)′  (96)

More specifically, x {p_(τ) ^(#)} is generated as follows:

$\begin{matrix} {\left\lbrack c_{\tau \; j}^{\#} \right\rbrack = \left\lbrack {M_{jj}^{\#}{C_{j}\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{x}}_{\tau} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{x}}_{\tau}\rangle}} \right)}} \right\rbrack} & (97) \\ {\left\lbrack d_{\tau \; {kj}}^{\#} \right\rbrack = \left\lbrack {M_{jj}^{\#}{D_{kj}\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{x}}_{\tau} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{x}}_{\tau}\rangle}} \right)}} \right\rbrack} & (98) \\ {c_{\tau}^{\#} = {\sum\limits_{j`}c_{\tau \; j}^{\#}}} & (99) \\ {p_{\tau \; k}^{\#} = {\left( {{\sum\limits_{j`}d_{\tau \; {kj}}} + c_{\tau \; j}^{\#}} \right)/\left( {2\; c_{\tau}^{\#}} \right)}} & (100) \end{matrix}$

x {p_(τk) ^(#)} is a pseudorandom number generated in accordance with the subjective probability distribution p_(τk) ^(#), and then x {p_(τ) ^(#)}=[x {p_(τ1) ^(#)} . . . x {p_(τR) ^(#)}]′, where R is the number of model spiking neurons in the UPU.

5.13 Preprocessing Exogenous Feature Vectors for the CIPAM

Given a variable α whose value is either a real number a or a real number b, it can be transformed into a variable x whose value is either −1 or 1, respectively, by the following function:

$x = {{f(\alpha)} = \frac{{2\; \alpha} - a - b}{b - a}}$

If α is near a or near b, then x is near f (a)=−1 or near f (b)=1, respectively. Given a vector α=[α₁ α₂ . . . α_(m)]′ whose components are real numbers, a and b, the vector α can be transformed into a bipolar binary vector x by the function

x=f(α)=[f(α₁)f(α₂) . . . f(α_(m))]′

If a component of α is near a or near b, then the corresponding component of x is near f (a) or near f (b), respectively. Notice that the symbol f denotes both a real-valued function of a real-valued variable α and a vector-valued function of a vector variable α with real components.

If the exogenous feature vectors α_(t) ^(ex), t=1, 2, . . . , to be processed by an artificial neural network have components being real numbers, a and b, or near a and near b, the vectors α_(t) ^(ex), t=1, 2, . . . , can be converted into binary or nearly binary vectors x_(t) ^(ex), t=1, 2, . . . , by x_(t) ^(ex)=f (α_(t) ^(ex)), t=1, 2, . . . . The CIPAM described hereinabove can then be applied.

5.14 A General ANN Mathematically Equivalent to LOM

The mathematical equivalence of the LOM and CIPAM motivated search for ANNs (artificial neural networks) that are mathematically equivalent to the LOM and CIPAM. Generalizations of the affine transformations, (65) and (66), are the following:

$\begin{matrix} {v = {{f(\alpha)} = \frac{\alpha - a}{b - a}}} & (101) \\ {\alpha = {{f^{- 1}(v)} = {{\left( {b - a} \right)v} + a}}} & (102) \end{matrix}$

where f⁻¹ denotes the inverse function of f. Notice that f (a)=0 and f (b)=1, and that f⁻¹ (0)=a and f⁻¹ (1)=b. Note that the affine transformations, (101) and (102) with a=1 and b=1, are (65) and (66). Using (101) and (102), the LOM can be transformed into a general ANN for a and b the way the LOM is transformed into the CIPAM for a=1 and b=−1.

Let v=f (α) and u=f (β). Recall that φ (v, u)=−2vu+v+u=(1−v) u+(1−u) v. By simple substitution,

$\begin{matrix} {{\varphi \left( {v,u} \right)} = {\varphi \left( {{f(\alpha)},{f(\beta)}} \right)}} \\ {= {{\left( {1 - \frac{\alpha - a}{b - a}} \right)\left( \frac{\beta - a}{b - a} \right)} + {\left( {1 - \frac{\beta - a}{b - a}} \right)\left( \frac{\alpha - a}{b - a} \right)}}} \\ {= {- \frac{{\left( {\alpha - b} \right)\left( {\beta - a} \right)} + {\left( {\alpha - a} \right)\left( {\beta - b} \right)}}{\left( {b - a} \right)^{2}}}} \end{matrix}$ and $\begin{matrix} {{f^{- 1}\left( {\varphi \left( {{f(\alpha)},{f(\beta)}} \right)} \right)} = {{\left( {b - a} \right){\varphi \left( {{f(\alpha)},{f(\beta)}} \right)}} + a}} \\ {= \frac{{{- 2}\; \alpha \; \beta} + {\left( {a + b} \right)\left( {\alpha + \beta - a} \right)}}{b - a}} \end{matrix}$

This function ƒ⁻¹ (Φ (ƒ (α), ƒ (β))) is denoted by φ (α, β). Notice that φ (a, a)=a, φ (a, b)=b, φ (b, a)=b, φ (b, b)=a. Hence, if α and β only assume values from {a, b}, φ (α, β) is a “general XOR or NXOR function”.

The function φ (α, β) is a general representation of the neuronal node operation φ (v, u), where the inputs of the neuronal node are represented by α and β its output is represented by φ (α, β).

The algebraic binary operation φ (α, β) is a commutative and associative binary operation on α and β:

φ(α,β)=φ(β,α)

φ(γ,φ(α,β))=φ(φ(γ,α),β)

Hence, we can define a symmetric function φ_(k) by applying the binary operation repeatedly as follows:

φ_(k)(α₁,α₂, . . . , α_(k))=φ( . . . φ(φ(α₁,α₂),α₃), . . . , α_(k))

where φ₁ (α_(i))=α_(i) and φ₂ (α_(i), α_(j))=φ (α_(i), α_(j)).

Let v_(i)=f (α_(i)) for i=1, . . . k. Recall φ (α₁, α₂)=f⁻¹ (φ (v₁, v₂))=f⁻¹ (φ (f (α₁), f (α₂))).

Using this definition of φ (α₁, α₂), we obtain

$\begin{matrix} {{\phi_{3}\left( {\alpha_{1},\alpha_{2},\alpha_{3}} \right)} = {\phi \left( {{\phi \left( {\alpha_{1},\alpha_{2}} \right)},\alpha_{3}} \right)}} \\ {= {\phi \left( {{f^{- 1}\left( {\varphi \left( {v_{1},v_{2}} \right)} \right)},{f^{- 1}\left( v_{3} \right)}} \right)}} \\ {= {f^{- 1}\left( {\varphi \left( {{\varphi \left( {v_{1},v_{2}} \right)},v_{3}} \right)} \right)}} \\ {= {f^{- 1}\left( {\varphi_{3}\left( {v_{1},v_{2},v_{3}} \right)} \right)}} \end{matrix}$

Assume that φ_(k) (α₁, . . . , α_(k))=f⁻¹ (φ_(k) (v₁, . . . , v_(k))). Using the definition of φ (α₁, α₂) again yields

$\begin{matrix} {{\phi_{k + 1}\left( {\alpha_{1},\ldots \mspace{14mu},\alpha_{k + 1}} \right)} = {\phi \left( {{\phi_{k}\left( {\alpha_{1},{\ldots \mspace{14mu} \alpha_{k}}} \right)},\alpha_{k + 1}} \right)}} \\ {= {\phi \left( {{f^{- 1}\left( {\varphi_{k}\left( {v_{1},{\ldots \mspace{14mu} v_{k}}} \right)} \right)},\alpha_{k + 1}} \right)}} \\ {= {f^{- 1}\left( {{\varphi \left( {\varphi_{k}\left( {v_{1},{\ldots \mspace{14mu} v_{k}}} \right)} \right)},v_{k + 1}} \right)}} \\ {= {f^{- 1}\left( {\varphi_{k + 1}\left( {v_{1},\ldots \mspace{14mu},v_{k + 1}} \right)} \right)}} \end{matrix}$

By mathematical induction, for any positive integer k,

φ_(k)(α₁, . . . , α_(k))=f ⁻¹(φ_(k)(v ₁ , . . . , v _(k)))  (103)

To describe an orthogonality property of the outputs of a model neuronal encoder with input variables {α₁, α₂, . . . , α_(m)}, we organize its 2^(m) outputs into a vector as follows: Let β denote a scalar and α=[α₁ α₂ . . . α_(k)]′ a k-dimensional vector. Define a k-dimensional vector φ (β, α) by

φ(β,α)=[φ(β,α₁)φ(β,α₂) . . . φ(β,α_(k))]′

The 2^(m) different functions that can be defined by compositions of the binary operation φ (α, β) on the input set {α₁, α₂, . . . , α_(m)} are generated and organized into a 2^(m)-dimensional column vector {hacek over (α)} by recursively generating row vectors {hacek over (α)} (1, . . . , k), for k=1, 2, . . . , m, as follows:

{hacek over (α)}(1)=[α α₁]  (104)

{hacek over (α)}(1,2)=[{hacek over (α)}(1)φ(α₂, {hacek over (α)}(1))]  (105)

{hacek over (α)}(1, . . . , k+1)=[{hacek over (α)}(1, . . . , k)φ(α_(k+1), {hacek over (α)}(1, . . . , k))]  (106)

{hacek over (α)}={hacek over (α)}′(1, . . . , m)  (107)

By (103),

$\begin{matrix} {\overset{\Cup}{\alpha} = \begin{bmatrix} {\overset{\Cup}{\alpha}}_{1} & {\overset{\Cup}{\alpha}}_{2} & \ldots & {\overset{\Cup}{\alpha}}_{2^{m}} \end{bmatrix}^{\prime}} \\ {= \left\lbrack {\begin{matrix} {f^{- 1}\left( {\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{1} \right)} & {f^{- 1}\left( {\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{2} \right)} & \ldots & f^{- 1} \end{matrix}\left( {\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{2^{m}} \right)} \right\rbrack^{\prime}} \end{matrix}$

where {hacek over (α)}_(k) and {hacek over (v)}_(k) denote the k-th components of {hacek over (α)} and {hacek over (v)} respectively. The vector on the right side is denoted by f⁻¹ ({hacek over (v)}) for simplicity. The vector {hacek over (α)} is called the neuronal code of α.

By (101) and (102),

$\begin{matrix} {{{\overset{\Cup}{v}}_{k} - \frac{1}{2}} = {{f\left( {\overset{\Cup}{\alpha}}_{k} \right)} - \frac{1}{2}}} \\ {= {\frac{{\overset{\Cup}{\alpha}}_{k} - a}{b - a} - \frac{1}{2}}} \\ {= \frac{{\overset{\Cup}{\alpha}}_{k} - \mu}{b - a}} \end{matrix}$

where

$\mu = {\frac{a + b}{2}.}$

Hence

$\overset{\Cup}{v} - {\frac{1}{2}I} - {\frac{1}{b - a}\left( {\overset{\Cup}{\alpha} - {\mu \; I}} \right)}$ and $\begin{matrix} \begin{matrix} {{\left( {\overset{\Cup}{\alpha} - {\mu \; I}} \right)^{\prime}\left( {\overset{\Cup}{\beta} - {\mu \; I}} \right)} = {\left( {b - a} \right)^{2}\left( {\overset{\Cup}{v} - {\frac{1}{2}I}} \right)^{\prime}\left( {\overset{\Cup}{u} - {\frac{1}{2}I}} \right)}} \\ {= {\frac{\left( {b - a} \right)^{2}}{4}{\prod\limits_{k = 1}^{m}\; \left( {1 + {2^{2}\left( {v_{k} - \frac{1}{2}} \right)\left( {u_{k} - \frac{1}{2}} \right)}} \right)}}} \\ {= {\frac{\left( {b - a} \right)^{2}}{4}{\prod\limits_{k = 1}^{m}\; \left( {1 + {2^{2}\left( \frac{\alpha_{k} - \mu}{b - a} \right)\left( \frac{\beta_{k} - \mu}{b - a} \right)}} \right)}}} \end{matrix} & (108) \end{matrix}$

It follows that if the components assume values from {a, b}, the neuronal codes have the following orthogonality property:

$\begin{matrix} {{\left( {\overset{\Cup}{\alpha} - {\mu \; I}} \right)^{\prime}\left( {\overset{\Cup}{\beta} - {\mu \; I}} \right)} = {{2^{m - 2}\left( {b - a} \right)^{2}\mspace{14mu} {if}\mspace{14mu} \alpha} = \beta}} \\ {= {{0\mspace{14mu} {if}\mspace{14mu} \alpha} \neq \beta}} \end{matrix}$

If the components of α and β assume values from the set {a, μ, b}, we have the following additional properties from the formula (108):

-   -   1. If (α_(k)−μ) (β_(k)−μ)=0 for some k in {1, . . . , m}, then

$\begin{matrix} {{\left( {\overset{\Cup}{\alpha} - {\mu \; I}} \right)^{\prime}\left( {\overset{\Cup}{\beta} - {\mu \; I}} \right)} = {\frac{\left( {b - a} \right)^{2}}{4}{\prod\limits_{{k = 1},,{j \neq k}}^{m}\; \left( {1 + {2^{2}\left( \frac{\alpha_{k} - \mu}{b - a} \right)\left( \frac{\beta_{k} - \mu}{b - a} \right)}} \right)}}} & (109) \end{matrix}$

-   -   2. If ({hacek over (α)}−μI)′ ({hacek over (β)}−μI)≠0, then         ({hacek over (α)}−μI)′ ({hacek over         (β)}−μI)=2^(4(α−μI)′(β−μI)−2), where the vector I on the left         side of the equality sign is 2^(m)-dimensional, but I on the         right side of the equality sign is m-dimensional.

Based on the transformations, (101) and (102), and the above corresponding properties between the variables α and β and the variables v and u, the LOM (low-order model of biological neural networks) can be transformed into a general representation of the LOM, which is a general ANN mathematically equivalent to the LOM. In this general ANN, components of feature vectors, “spikes and nonspikes”, and components of labels are numbers, a and b, or numbers in their vicinities. The variables whose values are such numbers will be denoted by α_(tj), β_(ti) and γ_(ti) instead of v_(tj), u_(ti) and w_(ti) in the following lists of formulas for the general representation. Here α_(tj)=f⁻¹ (v_(tj)), β_(ti)=f⁻¹ (u_(ti)), and γ_(ti)=f⁻¹ (w_(ti)).

For unsupervised covariance learning by the general model, the formulas, (11), (12) and (13), are respectively transformed to

$\begin{matrix} \left. D_{ij}\leftarrow{{\lambda \; D_{ij}} + {{\Lambda \left( {\beta_{ti} - {\langle\beta_{ti}\rangle}} \right)}\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{\alpha}}_{tj} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{\alpha}}_{tj}\rangle}} \right)}} \right. & (110) \\ \left. D\leftarrow{{\lambda \; D} + {{\Lambda \left( {\beta_{t} - {\langle\beta_{t}\rangle}} \right)}\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{\alpha}}_{t} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{\alpha}}_{t}\rangle}} \right)^{\prime}}} \right. & (111) \\ {D = {\Lambda {\sum\limits_{s = 1}^{t}{{\lambda^{t - s}\left( {\beta_{s} - {\langle\beta_{s}\rangle}} \right)}\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{\alpha}}_{s} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{\alpha}}_{s}\rangle}} \right)^{\prime}}}}} & (112) \end{matrix}$

where α_(t) is a vector input to the neuronal encoder; the 2^(m) outputs, {hacek over (α)}_(t1), {hacek over (α)}_(t2), . . . , {hacek over (α)}_(t2) _(m) , from the neuronal encoder at time (or numbering) t, pass through a synapse to reach each of a number, say R, postsynaptic model spiking neurons and a postsynaptic model nonspiking neuron, and the output of model spiking neuron i is denoted by β_(ti). β_(t) is the vector of R outputs β_(ti) of the R model spiking neurons. Furthermore, the formulas, (14), (15) and (16), are respectively transformed into

$\begin{matrix} \left. D_{ij}\leftarrow{{\lambda \; D_{ij}} + {{\Lambda \left( {\beta_{ti} - {\left( {a + b} \right)/2}} \right)}\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{\alpha}}_{tj} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{\alpha}}_{tj}\rangle}} \right)}} \right. & (113) \\ \left. D\leftarrow{{\lambda \; D} + {{\Lambda \left( {\beta_{t} - {\left( {a + b} \right)/2}} \right)}\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{\alpha}}_{t} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{\alpha}}_{t}\rangle}} \right)^{\prime}}} \right. & (114) \\ {D = {\Lambda {\sum\limits_{s = 1}^{t}{{\lambda^{t - s}\left( {\beta_{s} - {\left( {a + b} \right)/2}} \right)}\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{\alpha}}_{s} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{\alpha}}_{s}\rangle}} \right)^{\prime}}}}} & (115) \end{matrix}$

For supervised covariance learning by the general model, (17), (18), and (19) are respectively transformed into

$\begin{matrix} \left. D_{ij}\leftarrow{{\lambda \; D_{ij}} + {{\Lambda \left( {\gamma_{ti} - {\left( {a + b} \right)/2}} \right)}\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{\alpha}}_{tj} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{\alpha}}_{tj}\rangle}} \right)}} \right. & (116) \\ \left. D\leftarrow{{\lambda \; D} + {{\Lambda \left( {\gamma_{t} - {\left( {a + b} \right)/2}} \right)}\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{\alpha}}_{t} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{\alpha}}_{t}\rangle}} \right)^{\prime}}} \right. & (117) \\ {D = {\Lambda {\sum\limits_{s = 1}^{t}{{\lambda^{t - s}\left( {\gamma_{s} - {\left( {a + b} \right)/2}} \right)}\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{\alpha}}_{s} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{\alpha}}_{s}\rangle}} \right)^{\prime}}}}} & (118) \end{matrix}$

where γ_(t), t=1, 2, . . . , is a sequence of labels of the causes (e.g., patterns) inside the receptive field of the R model spiking neurons in the PU, and is provided from outside the CIPAM. The components of γ_(ti) assume values from the set {a, b}.

For unsupervised accumulation learning by the general model, (21) and (22) are respectively transformed into

$\begin{matrix} \left. C\leftarrow{{\lambda \; C} + {\frac{\Lambda}{2}\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{\alpha}}_{t} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{\alpha}}_{t}\rangle}} \right)^{\prime}}} \right. & (119) \\ {C = {\frac{\Lambda}{2}{\sum\limits_{s = 1}^{t}~{\lambda^{t - s}\left( {{\overset{\Cup}{\alpha}}_{s} - {\langle{\overset{\Cup}{\alpha}}_{s}\rangle}} \right)}^{\prime}}}} & (120) \end{matrix}$

For retrieving information from synapses, the decovariance rule, (24) and (25), are respectively transformed into

d _(τ) =D({hacek over (α)}_(τ)−

{hacek over (α)}_(τ)

)  (121)

c _(τ) =C({hacek over (α)}_(τ)−

{hacek over (α)}_(τ)

)  (122)

which are also called the decovariance rule.

For maximal generalization, the masking matrix (32) remains the same, but (33) and (34) are replaced with

d _(τ) =DM({hacek over (α)}_(τ)−

{hacek over (α)}_(τ)

)  (123)

c _(τ) =CM({hacek over (α)}_(τ)−

{hacek over (α)}_(τ)

)  (124)

which are also called the decovariance rule.

To describe the feature subvector input to a processing unit with Ψ multiple neuronal encoders in the general model, the formulas, (39) and (40), are respectively transformed to

{hacek over (α)}_(t)=[{hacek over (α)}_(t)′(1){hacek over (α)}_(t)′(2) . . . {hacek over (α)}_(t)′(Ψ)]′  (125)

{hacek over (α)}_(t)

=[

{hacek over (α)}_(t)′(1)

{hacek over (α)}_(t)′(2)

. . .

{hacek over (α)}_(t)′(Ψ)

]′  (126)

The formula, (43), for the general masking matrix M for a PU in the CIPAM remains the same. The general expansion covariance matrix D learned by the unsupervised covariance rule by an UPU in the CIPAM is defined by (41), where the code covariance matrix D (ψ) is defined by (112) or (115), depending on whether y_(s)−

y_(s)

or y_(s) is used. The general expansion covariance matrix D learned by the supervised covariance rule by an UPU in the CIPAM is defined by (41), where the code covariance matrix D (ψ) is defined by (118). The general expansion covariance matrix C for the CIPAM is defined by (42), where the code covariance matrix C (ψ) is defined by (120).

For retrieving information from synapses by the general model, the formulas, (44) and (45), are transformed into

d _(τ)(ψ)=D(ψ)M(ψ)({hacek over (α)}_(τ)(ψ)−

{hacek over (α)}_(τ)(ψ)

)  (127)

c _(τ)(ψ)=C(ψ)M(ψ)({hacek over (α)}_(τ)(ψ)−

{hacek over (α)}_(τ)(ψ)

)  (128)

for ψ=1, . . . , Ψ.

The computation formulas performed by a nonspiking neuron and a spiking neuron in the general model are obtained by transforming (54) and (55) respectively into

c _(τ) =CM({hacek over (α)}_(τ)−

{hacek over (α)}_(τ)

)  (129)

d _(τk) =D _(k) M({hacek over (α)}_(τ)−

{hacek over (α)}_(τ)

)  (130)

(c_(τ)+d_(τk))/2 is an estimate of 2^(m) times the total number of times v_(τ) and its general models have been encoded and stored in C with the kth component r_(τk) of r_(τ) being a. c_(τ) is an estimate of 2^(m) times the total number of times v_(τ) and its general models have been encoded and stored in C. Consequently, (d_(τk)/c_(τ)+1)/2 is the subjective probability p_(τk) that r_(τk) is equal to a given α_(t). model spiking neuron k then uses a pseudo-random number generator to generate a number (or “spike”) a with probability p_(τk) and a number b (or no “spike”) with probability 1−p_(τk). This pseudo-random number denoted by α {p_(τk)} is the output β_(τk) of model spiking neuron k at time or numbering τ. β_(τk)=α {p_(τk)} is thus a point estimate of the k-th component r_(τk) of the label r_(τ) of α_(τ) input to the PU.

Note that the vector

p _(τ) =[p _(τ1) p _(τ2) . . . p _(τR)]′

is a representation of a subjective probability distribution of the label r_(τ). Note also that the outputs of the R model spiking neurons in response to α_(τ) form a bipolar binary vector β_(τ)=α {p}, which is a point estimate of the label r_(τ) of α_(τ).

6 CONCLUSION, RAMIFICATION, AND SCOPE OF INVENTION

Many embodiments of the present invention are disclosed, which can achieve the objects listed in the “Summary” of the present invention disclosure. While our descriptions hereinabove contain many specificities, these should not be construed as limitations on the scope of the invention, but rather as an exemplification of preferred embodiments. In addition to these embodiments, those skilled in the art will recognize that other embodiments are possible within the teachings of the present invention. Accordingly, the scope of the present invention should be limited only by the appended claims and their appropriately construed legal equivalents. 

What is claimed is:
 1. An artificial neural network, comprising a least one processing unit, each processing unit comprising (a) at least one artificial neuronal encoder for encoding a vector that is input to said encoder into a neuronal code that is output from said encoder and has an orthogonality property; (b) a plurality of artificial synapses each for storing an entry of a code deviation accumulation vector and for evaluating a first product of said entry and a component of a code deviation vector that is the deviation of a neuronal code from an average neuronal code; (c) a plurality of artificial synapses each for storing an entry of a code covariance matrix and for evaluating a second product of said entry and a component of a code deviation vector that is the deviation of a neuronal code from an average neuronal code; (d) an artificial nonspiking neuron for evaluating a first sum of products each of a first product and a masking factor; and (e) at least one artificial spiking neuron for evaluating at least one second sum of products each of a second product and a masking factor, for using said first sum and said at least one second sum to evaluate a representation of a first subjective probability distribution of a label of a vector that is input to said processing unit, and for generating at least one pseudorandom number in accordance with said first subjective probability distribution, wherein masking factors are diagonal entries of a masking matrix; said products each of a first product and a masking factor are entries of the product of a code deviation accumulation vector, a masking matrix and a code deviation vector; and said products each of a second product and a masking factor are entries of the product of a code covariance matrix, a masking matrix and a code deviation vector.
 2. The artificial neural network of claim 1, wherein a plurality of code covariance matrices are submatrices of a general code covariance matrix, a plurality of code deviation accumulation vectors are subvectors of a general code deviation accumulation vector, a plurality of masking matrices are submatrices of a general masking matrix, and a plurality of neuronal codes are subvectors of a general neuronal code.
 3. The artificial neural network of claim 1, further comprising at least one feedback connection with time delay means.
 4. The artificial neural network of claim 1, wherein at least one processing unit further comprises unsupervised accumulation learning means for adjusting at least one code deviation accumulation vector in response to a vector that is input to said processing unit by the unsupervised accumulation rule.
 5. The artificial neural network of claim 4, wherein at least one processing unit further comprises unsupervised learning means for using at least one pseudorandom number generated in accordance with said first subjective probability distribution and at least one code deviation vector to adjust at least one code covariance matrix in response to a vector that is input to said processing unit by the unsupervised covariance rule.
 6. The artificial neural network of claim 1, wherein at least one processing unit further comprises (a) means for evaluating a third sum of products each of a first product and a learning masking factor; (b) means for evaluating at least one fourth sum of products each of a second product and a learning masking factor and using said third sum and said fourth sum to evaluate a representation of a second subjective probability distribution; and (c) unsupervised learning means for using at least one pseudorandom number generated in accordance with said second subjective probability distribution and at least one code deviation vector to adjust at least one code covariance matrix in response to a vector that is input to said processing unit by the unsupervised covariance rule, wherein said learning masking factors are diagonal entries of a learning masking matrix; said products each of a first product and a learning masking factor are entries of the product of a code deviation accumulation vector, a learning masking matrix and a code deviation vector; and said products each of a second product and a learning masking factor are entries of the product of a code covariance matrix, a learning masking matrix and a code deviation vector.
 7. The artificial neural network of claim 1, wherein at least one processing unit further comprises supervised learning means for adjusting at least one code covariance matrix in response to a vector that is input to said processing unit and a label of said vector that is provided from outside said processing unit by the supervised covariance rule.
 8. The artificial neural network of claim 1, wherein a plurality of processing units are unsupervised processing units, which form a network called a clusterer, and at least one processing unit is a supervised processing unit that receives a vector output from an unsupervised processing unit in said clusterer, the set of at least one supervised processing unit being called an interpreter.
 9. The artificial neural network of claim 8, wherein at least one of said plurality of unsupervised processing units further comprises (a) memory means for storing at least one learning masking matrix; (b) means for evaluating a third product of a code deviation accumulation vector, a learning masking matrix and a code deviation vector that is the deviation of a neuronal code from an average neuronal code; (c) means for evaluating a fourth product of a code covariance matrix, a learning masking matrix and a code deviation vector that is the deviation of a neuronal code from an average neuronal code; (d) evaluation means for using at least one third product and at least one fourth product to evaluate a representation of a second subjective probability distribution of a label of a vector that is input to said processing unit; and (e) unsupervised learning means for using at least one pseudorandom number generated in accordance with said second subjective probability distribution and at least one code deviation vector to adjust at least one code covariance matrix in response to a vector that is input to said processing unit by the unsupervised covariance rule.
 10. A system for processing data, said system comprising a least one processing unit, each processing unit comprising (a) encoding means for encoding a vector that is input to said encoder into a neuronal code that has an orthogonality property; (b) memory means for storing at least one code deviation accumulation vector, at least one code covariance matrix and at least one masking matrix; (c) means for evaluating a first product of a code deviation accumulation vector, a masking matrix and a code deviation vector that is the deviation of a neuronal code from an average neuronal code; (d) means for evaluating a second product of a code covariance matrix, a masking matrix and a code deviation vector that is the deviation of a neuronal code from an average neuronal code; and (e) evaluation means for using at least one first product and at least one second product to evaluate a representation of a first subjective probability distribution of a label of a vector that is input to said processing unit.
 11. The system of claim 10, further comprising pseudorandom number generation means for generating at least one pseudorandom number in accordance with said first subjective probability distribution.
 12. The system of claim 11, further comprising means for feedbacking at least one pseudo-random number generated by said pseudorandom number generation means to a processing unit after a time delay.
 13. The system of claim 11, wherein said processing unit further comprises unsupervised accumulation learning means for adjusting at least one code deviation accumulation vector by the unsupervised accumulation rule; and unsupervised learning means for adjusting at least one code covariance matrix by the unsupervised covariance rule.
 14. The system of claim 10, wherein at least one processing unit further comprises (a) memory means for storing at least one learning masking matrix; (b) means for evaluating a third product of a code deviation accumulation vector, a learning masking matrix and a code deviation vector that is the deviation of a neuronal code from an average neuronal code; (c) means for evaluating a fourth product of a code covariance matrix, a learning masking matrix and a code deviation vector that is the deviation of a neuronal code from an average neuronal code; (d) evaluation means for using at least one third product and at least one fourth product to evaluate a representation of a second subjective probability distribution of a label of a vector that is input to said processing unit; and (e) unsupervised learning means for using at least one pseudorandom number generated in accordance with said second subjective probability distribution and at least one code deviation vector to adjust at least one code covariance matrix in response to a vector that is input to said processing unit by the unsupervised covariance rule.
 15. The system of claim 10, wherein said processing unit further comprises unsupervised accumulation learning means for adjusting at least one code deviation accumulation vector by the unsupervised accumulation rule; and supervised learning means for adjusting at least one code covariance matrix by the supervised covariance rule.
 16. The system of claim 10, wherein a plurality of processing units are unsupervised processing units, which form a network called a clusterer, and at least one processing unit is a supervised processing unit that receives a vector output from an unsupervised processing unit in said clusterer, the set of at least one supervised processing unit being called an interpreter.
 17. The system of claim 16, wherein at least one of said plurality of unsupervised processing units further comprises (a) memory means for storing at least one learning masking matrix; (b) means for evaluating a third product of a code deviation accumulation vector, a learning masking matrix and a code deviation vector that is the deviation of a neuronal code from an average neuronal code; (c) means for evaluating a fourth product of a code covariance matrix, a learning masking matrix and a code deviation vector that is the deviation of a neuronal code from an average neuronal code; (d) evaluation means for using at least one third product and at least one fourth product to evaluate a representation of a second subjective probability distribution of a label of a vector that is input to said processing unit; and (e) unsupervised learning means for using at least one pseudorandom number generated in accordance with said second subjective probability distribution and at least one code deviation vector to adjust at least one code covariance matrix in response to a vector that is input to said processing unit by the unsupervised covariance rule.
 18. A method for processing data, said method comprising: (a) encoding a subvector of a first vector into a neuronal code with an orthogonality property; (b) evaluating a code deviation vector that is the deviation of a neuronal code from an average neuronal code; (c) evaluating a first product of an entry of a code deviation accumulation vector, a component of a code deviation vector and a masking factor; (d) evaluating a second product of an entry of a code covariance matrix, a component of a code deviation vector and a masking factor; (e) evaluating a first sum of first products; (f) evaluating at least one second sum of second products; and (g) using said first sum and said at least one second sum to evaluate a representation of a subjective probability distribution of a component of a label of said first vector.
 19. The method of claim 18, further comprising using at least one code deviation vector to adjust a code deviation accumulation vector by the unsupervised accumulation learning rule.
 20. The method of claim 18, further comprising generating a pseudorandom number in accordance with a subjective probability distribution.
 21. The method of claim 20, further comprising including a pseudorandom number generated in accordance with a subjective probability distribution as a component in said first vector after a time delay.
 22. The method of claim 20, further comprising using at least one code deviation vector and at least one pseudorandom number generated in accordance with a subjective probability distribution to adjust a code covariance matrix by the unsupervised covariance rule.
 23. The method of claim 18, further comprising (a) evaluating a third product of an entry of a code deviation accumulation vector, a component of a code deviation vector and a learning masking factor; (b) evaluating a fourth product of an entry of a code covariance matrix, a component of a code deviation vector and a learning masking factor; (c) evaluating a third sum of third products; (d) evaluating at least one fourth sum of fourth products; (e) using said third sum and said at least one fourth sum to evaluate a representation of a second subjective probability distribution; (f) generating at least one pseudorandom number in accordance with said second subjective probability distribution; and (g) using at least one pseudorandom number generated in accordance with said second subjective probability distribution and at least one code deviation vector to adjust at least one code covariance matrix in response to said first vector by the unsupervised covariance rule.
 24. The method of claim 18, further comprising using at least one code deviation vector and an assigned label of said first vector, whose components are not generated by the method of claim 18, to adjust a code covariance matrix by the supervised covariance rule.
 25. The method of claim 22, further comprising using at least one code deviation vector and an assigned label of said first vector, whose components are not pseudorandom numbers generated by the method of claim 22, to adjust a code covariance matrix by the supervised covariance rule.
 26. The method of claim 23, further comprising using at least one code deviation vector and a given label of said first vector, whose components are not pseudorandom numbers generated by the method of claim 23, to adjust a code covariance matrix by the supervised covariance rule. 